Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Author: Osama Hamdy, MD, PhD; Chief Editor: Romesh Khardori, MD, PhD, FACP more... Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is an acute, major, life-threatening complication of diabetes that mainly occurs in patients with type 1 diabetes, but it is not uncommon in some patients with type 2 diabetes. This condition is a complex disordered metabolic state characterized by hyperglycemia, ketoacidosis, and ketonuria. The most common early symptoms of DKA are the insidious increase in polydipsia and polyuria. The following are other signs and symptoms of DKA: Malaise, generalized weakness, and fatigability Nausea and vomiting; may be associated with diffuse abdominal pain, decreased appetite, and anorexia Rapid weight loss in patients newly diagnosed with type 1 diabetes History of failure to comply with insulin therapy or missed insulin injections due to vomiting or psychological reasons or history of mechanical failure of insulin infusion pump Altered consciousness (eg, mild disorientation, confusion); frank coma is uncommon but may occur when the condition is neglected or with severe dehydration/acidosis Signs and symptoms of DKA associated with possible intercurrent infection are as follows: Glaser NS, Marcin JP, Wootton-Gorges SL, et al. Correlation of clinical and biochemical findings with diabetic ketoacidosis-related cerebral edema in children using magnetic resonance diffusion-weighted imaging. J Pediatr. 2008 Jun 25. [Medline] . Umpierrez GE, Jones S, Smiley D, et al. Insulin analogs versus human insulin in the treatment of patients with diabetic ketoacidosis: a randomized controlled trial. Diabetes Care. 2009 Jul. 32(7):1164-9. [Medline] . [Full Text] . Herrington WG, Nye HJ, Hammersley MS, Watkinson PJ. Are arterial and venous samples clinically equivalent for the estimation Continue reading >>
Should I Give Bicarbonate In Dka?
Should I give bicarbonate to DKA patients with severe acidemia? Ive certainly been admonished for NOT doing it. The reason for withholding bicarb has been that Ive heard that it doesnt help and may actually be a bad idea. I cant say the action (or inaction) was based on a deep understanding. How could bicarb in DKA be a bad idea if even the American Diabetes Association (ADA) recommends we give a bicarb to DKA patients with pH under 6.9? The argument in favor of giving bicarb is that the more acidemic the patient, the higher the risk of circulatory collapse and cardiac arrest. Even though there is no evidence of benefit, the ADA gives a very specific set of steps to take in the low pH patient.. Because severe acidosis may lead to numerous adverse vascular effects, it is recommended that adult patients with a pH less than 6.9 should receive bicarbonate. Specially 100 mmol sodium bicarbonate, two ampules, in 400 mL sterile water with 20 mEq KCL admitted at a rate of 200ml/hr for 2 hours until the venous pH is over 7. If the ph isnt over 7 at that point, they say repeat the bicarb infusion every 2 hours until the ph is over 7.0 With that sort of exact guidance, youd think there would be evidence to back it up, but here is the sentence that precedes the above recommendation. No prospective randomized studies concerning the use of bicarbonate in DKA with pH values <6.9 have been reported. Because of the lack of evidence, the UK guidelines say this Adequate fluid and insulin therapy will resolve the acidosis in diabetic ketoacidosis and the use of bicarbonate is not indicated But as the saying goes, absence of evidence is not evidence of absence, so is there a downside to giving bicarb to DKA patients? It turns out there there may be. Several FOAMed bloggers have tackled thi Continue reading >>
Bicarbonate Therapy In Severe Metabolic Acidosis
Abstract The utility of bicarbonate administration to patients with severe metabolic acidosis remains controversial. Chronic bicarbonate replacement is obviously indicated for patients who continue to lose bicarbonate in the ambulatory setting, particularly patients with renal tubular acidosis syndromes or diarrhea. In patients with acute lactic acidosis and ketoacidosis, lactate and ketone bodies can be converted back to bicarbonate if the clinical situation improves. For these patients, therapy must be individualized. In general, bicarbonate should be given at an arterial blood pH of ≤7.0. The amount given should be what is calculated to bring the pH up to 7.2. The urge to give bicarbonate to a patient with severe acidemia is apt to be all but irresistible. Intervention should be restrained, however, unless the clinical situation clearly suggests benefit. Here we discuss the pros and cons of bicarbonate therapy for patients with severe metabolic acidosis. Metabolic acidosis is an acid-base disorder characterized by a primary consumption of body buffers including a fall in blood bicarbonate concentration. There are many causes (Table 1), and there are multiple mechanisms that minimize the fall in arterial pH. A patient with metabolic acidosis may have a normal or even high pH if there is another primary, contravening event that raises the bicarbonate concentration (vomiting) or lowers the arterial Pco2 (respiratory alkalosis). Metabolic acidosis differs from “acidemia” in that the latter refers solely to a fall in blood pH and not the process. A recent online survey by Kraut and Kurtz1 highlighted the uncertainty over when to give bicarbonate to patients with metabolic acidosis. They reported that nephrologists will prescribe therapy at a higher pH compared with Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Diabetes mellitus is the name given to a group of conditions whose common hallmark is a raised blood glucose concentration (hyperglycemia) due to an absolute or relative deficiency of the pancreatic hormone insulin. In the UK there are 1.4 million registered diabetic patients, approximately 3 % of the population. In addition, an estimated 1 million remain undiagnosed. It is a growing health problem: In 1998, the World Health Organization (WHO) predicted a doubling of the worldwide prevalence of diabetes from 150 million to 300 million by 2025. For a very tiny minority, diabetes is a secondary feature of primary endocrine disease such as acromegaly (growth hormone excess) or Cushing’s syndrome (excess corticosteroid), and for these patients successful treatment of the primary disease cures diabetes. Most diabetic patients, however, are classified as suffering either type 1 or type 2 diabetes. Type 1 diabetes Type 1 diabetes, which accounts for around 15 % of the total diabetic population, is an autoimmune disease of the pancreas in which the insulin-producing β-cells of the pancreas are selectively destroyed, resulting in an absolute insulin deficiency. The condition arises in genetically susceptible individuals exposed to undefined environmental insult(s) (possibly viral infection) early in life. It usually becomes clinically evident and therefore diagnosed during late childhood, with peak incidence between 11 and 13 years of age, although the autoimmune-mediated β-cell destruction begins many years earlier. There is currently no cure and type 1 diabetics have an absolute life-long requirement for daily insulin injections to survive. Type 2 diabetes This is the most common form of diabetes: around 85 % of the diabetic population has type 2 diabetes. The primary prob Continue reading >>
Sodium Bicarbonate And Diabetic Ketoacidosis
OVERVIEW The correction of the acidaemia in DKA is achieved by correcting the underlying pathophysiology with fluid replacement and insulin The role of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) as a therapy for diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is controversial Different sources have different values for the cut off pH which requires treatment, and other sources advise against NaHCO3 use in DKA completely — there is no consensus RATIONALE Reasons proposed for use of sodium bicarbonate in DKA: treatment of severe acidaemia, which causes catecholamine resistance and myocardial depression treatment of severe hyperkalemia replacement of bicarbonate loss from Renal or GI tract — theoretical potential for giving HCO3- with renal wasting of HCO3- or GI loss if delta ratio is <1 (as is usual for DKA) ketoacids lost in urine (hence delta ratio <1) cannot be converted into HCO3- DISADVANTAGES Side effects of sodium bicarbonate Worsening of intracellular acidaemia hypernatraemia (1mmol of Na+ for every 1mmol of HCO3-) hyperosmolality (cause arterial vasodilation and hypotension) volume overload rebound or ‘overshoot’ alkalosis hypokalaemia ionised hypocalcaemia impaired oxygen unloading due to left shift of the oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve removal of acidotic inhibition of glycolysis by increased activity of PFK CSF acidosis hypercapnia (CO2 readily passes intracellularly and worsens intracellular acidosis) severe tissue necrosis if extravasation takes place bicarbonate increases lactate production by: — increasing the activity of the rate limiting enzyme phosphofructokinase and removal of acidotic inhibition of glycolysis — shifts Hb-O2 dissociation curve, increased oxygen affinity of haemoglobin and thereby decreases oxygen delivery to tissues EVIDENCE A 2011 systematic review by C Continue reading >>
Any Benefit To Sodium Bicarbonate In Dka?
In a prior post, we discussed the use of an initial insulin bolus in the management of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA). Today we will address another facet of DKA management, for which there is less than optimal evidence and that is: Any benefit to sodium bicarbonate in DKA? Consensus guidelines for the management of DKA recommended administering sodium bicarbonate to DKA patients who present with an initial blood gas pH of < 7.0. That recommendation was updated and changed in 2009 to limit sodium bicarbonate use to DKA patients with blood gas pH of < 6.9. More recently, Chua et al. published a systematic review of 44 articles discussing bicarbonate administration and Duhon et al. published the largest retrospective review of DKA patient with presenting pH of < 7.0. What are the most recent studies evaluating: Any benefit to sodium bicarbonate in DKA? Chua et al (21906367) Duhon et al (23737516) Objective Efficacy and risk of bicarb administration in severe acidemia in DKA Determine whether bicarb therapy is associated with reduced time to resolution of acidemia Methods Systematic review of pubmed database Retrospective cohort of DKA pts with initial pH < 7.0 who did vs did not receive bicarb Results 44 articles included -Heterogeneity in pH threshold, concentration, amount, & timing of bicarb administration -Transient improvement in metabolic acidosis -No improved glycemic control -Associated risk of cerebral edema in pediatric pts No study involved patients with a pH < 6.85 86 patients -No difference found in: 1. Time to resolution of acidemia 2. Time to hospital discharge 3. Time on IV insulin 4. Potassium requirement in 1st 24 hrs -Subgroup analysis of pH <6.9 (n=20) showed no statistical diff in time to resolution of acidemia Conclusion Evidence does not justify the ad Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is a potentially life-threatening complication of diabetes mellitus.[1] Signs and symptoms may include vomiting, abdominal pain, deep gasping breathing, increased urination, weakness, confusion, and occasionally loss of consciousness.[1] A person's breath may develop a specific smell.[1] Onset of symptoms is usually rapid.[1] In some cases people may not realize they previously had diabetes.[1] DKA happens most often in those with type 1 diabetes, but can also occur in those with other types of diabetes under certain circumstances.[1] Triggers may include infection, not taking insulin correctly, stroke, and certain medications such as steroids.[1] DKA results from a shortage of insulin; in response the body switches to burning fatty acids which produces acidic ketone bodies.[3] DKA is typically diagnosed when testing finds high blood sugar, low blood pH, and ketoacids in either the blood or urine.[1] The primary treatment of DKA is with intravenous fluids and insulin.[1] Depending on the severity, insulin may be given intravenously or by injection under the skin.[3] Usually potassium is also needed to prevent the development of low blood potassium.[1] Throughout treatment blood sugar and potassium levels should be regularly checked.[1] Antibiotics may be required in those with an underlying infection.[6] In those with severely low blood pH, sodium bicarbonate may be given; however, its use is of unclear benefit and typically not recommended.[1][6] Rates of DKA vary around the world.[5] In the United Kingdom, about 4% of people with type 1 diabetes develop DKA each year, while in Malaysia the condition affects about 25% a year.[1][5] DKA was first described in 1886 and, until the introduction of insulin therapy in the 1920s, it was almost univ Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis (dka)
Diabetic ketoacidosis is an acute metabolic complication of diabetes characterized by hyperglycemia, hyperketonemia, and metabolic acidosis. Hyperglycemia causes an osmotic diuresis with significant fluid and electrolyte loss. DKA occurs mostly in type 1 diabetes mellitus (DM). It causes nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain and can progress to cerebral edema, coma, and death. DKA is diagnosed by detection of hyperketonemia and anion gap metabolic acidosis in the presence of hyperglycemia. Treatment involves volume expansion, insulin replacement, and prevention of hypokalemia. Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is most common among patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus and develops when insulin levels are insufficient to meet the body’s basic metabolic requirements. DKA is the first manifestation of type 1 DM in a minority of patients. Insulin deficiency can be absolute (eg, during lapses in the administration of exogenous insulin) or relative (eg, when usual insulin doses do not meet metabolic needs during physiologic stress). Common physiologic stresses that can trigger DKA include Some drugs implicated in causing DKA include DKA is less common in type 2 diabetes mellitus, but it may occur in situations of unusual physiologic stress. Ketosis-prone type 2 diabetes is a variant of type 2 diabetes, which is sometimes seen in obese individuals, often of African (including African-American or Afro-Caribbean) origin. People with ketosis-prone diabetes (also referred to as Flatbush diabetes) can have significant impairment of beta cell function with hyperglycemia, and are therefore more likely to develop DKA in the setting of significant hyperglycemia. SGLT-2 inhibitors have been implicated in causing DKA in both type 1 and type 2 DM. Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Initial Evaluation Initial evaluation of patients with DKA includes diagnosis and treatment of precipitating factors (Table 14–18). The most common precipitating factor is infection, followed by noncompliance with insulin therapy.3 While insulin pump therapy has been implicated as a risk factor for DKA in the past, most recent studies show that with proper education and practice using the pump, the frequency of DKA is the same for patients on pump and injection therapy.19 Common causes by frequency Other causes Selected drugs that may contribute to diabetic ketoacidosis Infection, particularly pneumonia, urinary tract infection, and sepsis4 Inadequate insulin treatment or noncompliance4 New-onset diabetes4 Cardiovascular disease, particularly myocardial infarction5 Acanthosis nigricans6 Acromegaly7 Arterial thrombosis, including mesenteric and iliac5 Cerebrovascular accident5 Hemochromatosis8 Hyperthyroidism9 Pancreatitis10 Pregnancy11 Atypical antipsychotic agents12 Corticosteroids13 FK50614 Glucagon15 Interferon16 Sympathomimetic agents including albuterol (Ventolin), dopamine (Intropin), dobutamine (Dobutrex), terbutaline (Bricanyl),17 and ritodrine (Yutopar)18 DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS Three key features of diabetic acidosis are hyperglycemia, ketosis, and acidosis. The conditions that cause these metabolic abnormalities overlap. The primary differential diagnosis for hyperglycemia is hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (Table 23,20), which is discussed in the Stoner article21 on page 1723 of this issue. Common problems that produce ketosis include alcoholism and starvation. Metabolic states in which acidosis is predominant include lactic acidosis and ingestion of drugs such as salicylates and methanol. Abdominal pain may be a symptom of ketoacidosis or part of the inci Continue reading >>
Pulmcrit- Dominating The Acidosis In Dka
Management of acidosis in DKA is an ongoing source of confusion. There isn’t much high-quality evidence, nor will there ever be (1). However, a clear understanding of the physiology of DKA may help us treat this rationally and effectively. Physiology of ketoacidosis in DKA Ketoacidosis occurs due to an imbalance between insulin dose and insulin requirement: Many factors affect the insulin requirement: Individuals differ in their baseline insulin resistance and insulin requirements. Physiologic stress (e.g. hypovolemia, inflammation) increases the level of catecholamines and cortisol, which increases insulin resistance. Hyperglycemia and metabolic acidosis themselves increase insulin resistance (Souto 2011, Gosmanov 2014). DKA treatment generally consists of two phases: first, we must manage the ketoacidosis. Later, we must prepare the patient to transition back to their home insulin regimen. During both phases, success depends on balancing insulin dose and insulin requirement. Phase I (Take-off): Initial management of the DKA patient with worrisome acidosis Let’s start by considering a patient who presents in severe DKA with worrisome acidosis. This is uncommon. Features that might provoke worry include the following: bicarbonate < 7 mEq/L pH < 7 (if measured; there is generally little benefit from measuring pH) clinically ill-appearing (e.g., dyspnea, marked Kussmaul respirations) These patients generally have severe metabolic acidosis with respiratory compensation. This creates two concerns: If the metabolic acidosis worsens, they may decompensate. The patient is depending on respiratory compensation to maintain their pH. If they should fatigue and lose the ability to hyperventilate, their pH would drop. It is important to reverse the acidosis before the patient m Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosisworkup
Author: Osama Hamdy, MD, PhD; Chief Editor: Romesh Khardori, MD, PhD, FACP more... Diabetic ketoacidosis is typically characterized by hyperglycemia over 250 mg/dL, a bicarbonate level less than 18 mEq/L, and a pH less than 7.30, with ketonemia and ketonuria. While definitions vary, mild DKA can be categorized by a pH level of 7.25-7.3 and a serum bicarbonate level between 15-18 mEq/L; moderate DKA can be categorized by a pH between 7.0-7.24 and a serum bicarbonate level of 10 to less than 15 mEq/L; and severe DKA has a pH less than 7.0 and bicarbonate less than 10 mEq/L. [ 17 ] In mild DKA, anion gap is greater than 10 and in moderate or severe DKA the anion gap is greater than 12. These figures differentiate DKA from HHS where blood glucose is greater than 600 mg/dL but pH is greater than 7.3 and serum bicarbonate greater than 15 mEq/L. Laboratory studies for diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) should be scheduled as follows: Blood tests for glucose every 1-2 h until patient is stable, then every 4-6 h Serum electrolyte determinations every 1-2 h until patient is stable, then every 4-6 h Glaser NS, Marcin JP, Wootton-Gorges SL, et al. Correlation of clinical and biochemical findings with diabetic ketoacidosis-related cerebral edema in children using magnetic resonance diffusion-weighted imaging. J Pediatr. 2008 Jun 25. [Medline] . Umpierrez GE, Jones S, Smiley D, et al. Insulin analogs versus human insulin in the treatment of patients with diabetic ketoacidosis: a randomized controlled trial. Diabetes Care. 2009 Jul. 32(7):1164-9. [Medline] . [Full Text] . Herrington WG, Nye HJ, Hammersley MS, Watkinson PJ. Are arterial and venous samples clinically equivalent for the estimation of pH, serum bicarbonate and potassium concentration in critically ill patients?. Diabet Med. 201 Continue reading >>
Diagnosis And Treatment Of Diabetic Ketoacidosis And The Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar State
Go to: Pathogenesis In both DKA and HHS, the underlying metabolic abnormality results from the combination of absolute or relative insulin deficiency and increased amounts of counterregulatory hormones. Glucose and lipid metabolism When insulin is deficient, the elevated levels of glucagon, catecholamines and cortisol will stimulate hepatic glucose production through increased glycogenolysis and enhanced gluconeogenesis4 (Fig. 1). Hypercortisolemia will result in increased proteolysis, thus providing amino acid precursors for gluconeogenesis. Low insulin and high catecholamine concentrations will reduce glucose uptake by peripheral tissues. The combination of elevated hepatic glucose production and decreased peripheral glucose use is the main pathogenic disturbance responsible for hyperglycemia in DKA and HHS. The hyperglycemia will lead to glycosuria, osmotic diuresis and dehydration. This will be associated with decreased kidney perfusion, particularly in HHS, that will result in decreased glucose clearance by the kidney and thus further exacerbation of the hyperglycemia. In DKA, the low insulin levels combined with increased levels of catecholamines, cortisol and growth hormone will activate hormone-sensitive lipase, which will cause the breakdown of triglycerides and release of free fatty acids. The free fatty acids are taken up by the liver and converted to ketone bodies that are released into the circulation. The process of ketogenesis is stimulated by the increase in glucagon levels.5 This hormone will activate carnitine palmitoyltransferase I, an enzyme that allows free fatty acids in the form of coenzyme A to cross mitochondrial membranes after their esterification into carnitine. On the other side, esterification is reversed by carnitine palmitoyltransferase I Continue reading >>
Bicarbonate In Diabetic Ketoacidosis - A Systematic Review
Go to: Abstract Objective This study was designed to examine the efficacy and risk of bicarbonate administration in the emergent treatment of severe acidemia in diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA). PUBMED database was used to identify potentially relevant articles in the pediatric and adult DKA populations. DKA intervention studies on bicarbonate administration versus no bicarbonate in the emergent therapy, acid-base studies, studies on risk association with cerebral edema, and related case reports, were selected for review. Two reviewers independently conducted data extraction and assessed the citation relevance for inclusion. Results From 508 potentially relevant articles, 44 were included in the systematic review, including three adult randomized controlled trials (RCT) on bicarbonate administration versus no bicarbonate in DKA. We observed a marked heterogeneity in pH threshold, concentration, amount, and timing for bicarbonate administration in various studies. Two RCTs demonstrated transient improvement in metabolic acidosis with bicarbonate treatment within the initial 2 hours. There was no evidence of improved glycemic control or clinical efficacy. There was retrospective evidence of increased risk for cerebral edema and prolonged hospitalization in children who received bicarbonate, and weak evidence of transient paradoxical worsening of ketosis, and increased need for potassium supplementation. No studies involved patients with an initial pH < 6.85. Conclusions The evidence to date does not justify the administration of bicarbonate for the emergent treatment of DKA, especially in the pediatric population, in view of possible clinical harm and lack of sustained benefits. Continue reading >>
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Pulmcrit – Four Dka Pearls
Introduction I have a confession to make: I love treating DKA. It’s satisfying to take a patient from severe acidosis, electrolytic disarray, and hypovolemia to normal physiology during an ICU shift. Although it's usually straightforward, there are some pitfalls and a few tricks that may help your patients improve faster.0 Pearl #1: Avoid normal saline A common phenomenon observed when starting a DKA resuscitation with normal saline (NS) is worseningof the patient’s acidosis with decreasing bicarbonate levels (example below). This occurs despite an improvement in the anion gap, and is explained by a hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis caused by bolusing with NS. This could be a real problem for a patient whose initial bicarbonate level is extremely low.1 A while ago I made the switch from NS to lactated ringers (LR) for resuscitation of DKA patients, and have not observed this phenomenon when using LR. Example of the effect of normal saline resuscitation during the initial phase of DKA resuscitation. This patient received approximately 3 liters normal saline between admission labs and the next set of labs as well as an insulin infusion, all textbook management per American Diabetes Association guidelines. The anion gap decreased from 33 mEq/L to 30 mEq/L, indicating improvement of ketoacidosis. However, the bicarbonate decreased from 8 mEq/L to 5 mEq/L due to a hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis caused by the normal saline. Note the increase in chloride over four hours. Failure of the potassium to decrease significantly despite insulin infusion may reflect potassium shifting out of the cells in response to the hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis. There is only one randomized controlled trial comparing NS to LR for resuscitation in DKA (Zyl et al, 2011). These authors fou Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis
I. Review of normal lipid metabolism Triglycerides in adipose ==lipolysis==> Long-chain FAs Long-chain FAs==hepatic beta-oxidation==>Acetyl CoA Acetyl CoA==hepatic ketogenesis==>ketone bodies Ketone bodies are Beta-hydroxybutyrate and Acetoacetate Beta-OHB is oxidized to AcAc-; their relative concentrations depend on redox state of cell; Beta-OHB predominates in situation favoring reductive metabolism (e.g. decreased tissue perfusion, met. acidosis, catabolic states--like DKA!) Typical ratio Beta-OHB:AcAc- is 3:1; us. increases in DKA II. Hormonal influences on glucose and lipid metabolism Insulin In liver, increases glu uptake from portal blood; stimulates glycogenesis, inhibits glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis In skeletal muscle, increases glu uptake from blood, stimulates protein synth, inhibits proteolysis In adipose tissue, required for glu and lipoprotein uptake from blood; stimulates lipogenesis, inhibits lipolysis Tissues which don't require insulin to transport glucose into cells: brain, renal medulla, formed blood elements Counterregulatory hormones: glucagon (major player in DKA), epi/norepi, cortisol, growth hormone (no acute effects, only over days-weeks) Glucagon: increases hepatic beta-oxidation, ketogenesis, gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis; decreases hepatic FA synth. Epi/Norepi: increase hepatic gluconeogenesis & glycogenolysis; increases adipose lipolysis; decreases peripheral glu utilization Cortisol: major effect is decreased peripheral glu utiliz; little effect on production Growth hormone: increases hepatic gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis; increases adipose lipolysis In high counterreg. hormone states (see above), require high levels of insulin to avoid progressive hyperglycemia and ketoacidosis--glucagon levels in DKA are 5-6 x nl* III. Pa Continue reading >>
