Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State
Background Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS) is one of two serious metabolic derangements that occurs in patients with diabetes mellitus (DM). [1] It is a life-threatening emergency that, although less common than its counterpart, diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), has a much higher mortality rate, reaching up to 5-10%. (See Epidemiology.) HHS was previously termed hyperosmolar hyperglycemic nonketotic coma (HHNC); however, the terminology was changed because coma is found in fewer than 20% of patients with HHS. [2] HHS is most commonly seen in patients with type 2 DM who have some concomitant illness that leads to reduced fluid intake, as seen, for example, in elderly institutionalized persons with decreased thirst perception and reduced ability to drink water. [3] Infection is the most common preceding illness, but many other conditions, such as stroke or myocardial infarction, can cause this state. [3] Once HHS has developed, it may be difficult to identify or differentiate it from the antecedent illness. (See Etiology.) HHS is characterized by hyperglycemia, hyperosmolarity, and dehydration without significant ketoacidosis. Most patients present with severe dehydration and focal or global neurologic deficits. [2, 4, 5] The clinical features of HHS and DKA overlap and are observed simultaneously (overlap cases) in up to one third of cases. According to the consensus statement published by the American Diabetes Association, diagnostic features of HHS may include the following (see Workup) [4, 6] : Effective serum osmolality of 320 mOsm/kg or greater Profound dehydration, up to an average of 9L Detection and treatment of an underlying illness are critical. Standard care for dehydration and altered mental status is appropriate, including airway management, intravenous (I Continue reading >>
Diabetic Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar Syndrome
What is diabetic hyperglycemic hyperosmolar syndrome? Hyperglycemic hyperosmolar syndrome (HHS) is a potentially life-threatening condition involving extremely high blood sugar, or glucose, levels. Any illness that causes dehydration or reduced insulin activity can lead to HHS. It’s most commonly a result of uncontrolled or undiagnosed diabetes. An illness or infection can trigger HHS. Failure to monitor and control blood glucose levels can also lead to HHS. When your blood sugar gets too high, the kidneys try to compensate by removing some of the excess glucose through urination. If you don’t drink enough fluids to replace the fluid you’re losing, your blood sugar levels spike. Your blood also becomes more concentrated. This can also occur if you drink too many sugary beverages. This condition is called hyperosmolarity. Blood that’s too concentrated begins to draw water out of other organs, including the brain. Some possible symptoms are excessive thirst, increased urination, and fever. Symptoms may develop slowly and increase over a period of days or weeks. Treatment involves reversing or preventing dehydration and getting blood glucose levels under control. Prompt treatment can relieve symptoms within a few hours. Untreated HHS can lead to life-threatening complications, including dehydration, shock, or coma. Go to an emergency room or call 911 if you have symptoms of HHS. This is a medical emergency. HHS can happen to anyone. It’s more common in older people who have type 2 diabetes. Symptoms may begin gradually and worsen over a few days or weeks. A high blood sugar level is a warning sign of HHS. The symptoms include: excessive thirst high urine output dry mouth weakness sleepiness a fever warm skin that doesn’t perspire nausea vomiting weight loss leg Continue reading >>
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Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State: A Historic Review Of The Clinical Presentation, Diagnosis, And Treatment
The hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS) is the most serious acute hyperglycemic emergency in patients with type 2 diabetes. von Frerichs and Dreschfeld described the first cases of HHS in the 1880s in patients with an “unusual diabetic coma” characterized by severe hyperglycemia and glycosuria in the absence of Kussmaul breathing, with a fruity breath odor or positive acetone test in the urine. Current diagnostic HHS criteria include a plasma glucose level >600 mg/dL and increased effective plasma osmolality >320 mOsm/kg in the absence of ketoacidosis. The incidence of HHS is estimated to be <1% of hospital admissions of patients with diabetes. The reported mortality is between 10 and 20%, which is about 10 times higher than the mortality rate in patients with diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA). Despite the severity of this condition, no prospective, randomized studies have determined best treatment strategies in patients with HHS, and its management has largely been extrapolated from studies of patients with DKA. There are many unresolved questions that need to be addressed in prospective clinical trials regarding the pathogenesis and treatment of pediatric and adult patients with HHS. The hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS) is a syndrome characterized by severe hyperglycemia, hyperosmolality, and dehydration in the absence of ketoacidosis. The exact incidence of HHS is not known, but it is estimated to account for <1% of hospital admissions in patients with diabetes (1). Most cases of HHS are seen in elderly patients with type 2 diabetes; however, it has also been reported in children and young adults (2). The overall mortality rate is estimated to be as high as 20%, which is about 10 times higher than the mortality in patients with diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) (3� Continue reading >>
Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State
Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS) is a complication of diabetes mellitus in which high blood sugar results in high osmolarity without significant ketoacidosis.[4] Symptoms include signs of dehydration, weakness, legs cramps, trouble seeing, and an altered level of consciousness.[2] Onset is typically over days to weeks.[3] Complications may include seizures, disseminated intravascular coagulopathy, mesenteric artery occlusion, or rhabdomyolysis.[2] The main risk factor is a history of diabetes mellitus type 2.[4] Occasionally it may occur in those without a prior history of diabetes or those with diabetes mellitus type 1.[3][4] Triggers include infections, stroke, trauma, certain medications, and heart attacks.[4] Diagnosis is based on blood tests finding a blood sugar greater than 30 mmol/L (600 mg/dL), osmolarity greater than 320 mOsm/kg, and a pH above 7.3.[2][3] Initial treatment generally consists of intravenous fluids to manage dehydration, intravenous insulin in those with significant ketones, low molecular weight heparin to decrease the risk of blood clotting, and antibiotics among those in whom there is concerns of infection.[3] The goal is a slow decline in blood sugar levels.[3] Potassium replacement is often required as the metabolic problems are corrected.[3] Efforts to prevent diabetic foot ulcers are also important.[3] It typically takes a few days for the person to return to baseline.[3] While the exact frequency of the condition is unknown, it is relatively common.[2][4] Older people are most commonly affected.[4] The risk of death among those affected is about 15%.[4] It was first described in the 1880s.[4] Signs and symptoms[edit] Symptoms of high blood sugar including increased thirst (polydipsia), increased volume of urination (polyurea), and i Continue reading >>
Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State: A Historic Review Of The Clinical Presentation, Diagnosis, And Treatment
Go to: The hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS) is a syndrome characterized by severe hyperglycemia, hyperosmolality, and dehydration in the absence of ketoacidosis. The exact incidence of HHS is not known, but it is estimated to account for <1% of hospital admissions in patients with diabetes (1). Most cases of HHS are seen in elderly patients with type 2 diabetes; however, it has also been reported in children and young adults (2). The overall mortality rate is estimated to be as high as 20%, which is about 10 times higher than the mortality in patients with diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) (3–5). The prognosis is determined by the severity of dehydration, presence of comorbidities, and advanced age (4,6,7). Treatment of HHS is directed at replacing volume deficit and correcting hyperosmolality, hyperglycemia, and electrolyte disturbances, as well as management of the underlying illness that precipitated the metabolic decompensation. Low-dose insulin infusion protocols designed for treating DKA appear to be effective; however, no prospective randomized studies have determined best treatment strategies for the management of patients with HHS. Herein, we present an extensive review of the literature on diabetic coma and HHS to provide a historical perspective on the clinical presentation, diagnosis, and management of this serious complication of diabetes. History of Diabetic Coma and HHS In 1828, in the textbook Versuch einer Pathologie und Therapie des Diabetes Mellitus, August W. von Stosch gave the first detailed clinical description of diabetic coma in an adult patient with severe polydipsia, polyuria, and a large amount of glucose in the urine followed by progressive decline in mental status and death (8). Several case reports followed this publication, describing p Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis And Hyperglycaemic Hyperosmolar State
The hallmark of diabetes is a raised plasma glucose resulting from an absolute or relative lack of insulin action. Untreated, this can lead to two distinct yet overlapping life-threatening emergencies. Near-complete lack of insulin will result in diabetic ketoacidosis, which is therefore more characteristic of type 1 diabetes, whereas partial insulin deficiency will suppress hepatic ketogenesis but not hepatic glucose output, resulting in hyperglycaemia and dehydration, and culminating in the hyperglycaemic hyperosmolar state. Hyperglycaemia is characteristic of diabetic ketoacidosis, particularly in the previously undiagnosed, but it is the acidosis and the associated electrolyte disorders that make this a life-threatening condition. Hyperglycaemia is the dominant feature of the hyperglycaemic hyperosmolar state, causing severe polyuria and fluid loss and leading to cellular dehydration. Progression from uncontrolled diabetes to a metabolic emergency may result from unrecognised diabetes, sometimes aggravated by glucose containing drinks, or metabolic stress due to infection or intercurrent illness and associated with increased levels of counter-regulatory hormones. Since diabetic ketoacidosis and the hyperglycaemic hyperosmolar state have a similar underlying pathophysiology the principles of treatment are similar (but not identical), and the conditions may be considered two extremes of a spectrum of disease, with individual patients often showing aspects of both. Pathogenesis of DKA and HHS Insulin is a powerful anabolic hormone which helps nutrients to enter the cells, where these nutrients can be used either as fuel or as building blocks for cell growth and expansion. The complementary action of insulin is to antagonise the breakdown of fuel stores. Thus, the relea Continue reading >>
Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State
Dr. Richard Hellman, past president of the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists, remembers once seeing a man whose blood glucose level was 2,400 mg/dl. “Basically,” he said, “his blood looked like syrup.” However, the man was not experiencing diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA). Instead, he had a condition called hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state, or HHS. Like DKA, HHS is characterized by very high blood glucose levels, but unlike in DKA, people with HHS do not generally have ketones in their blood or urine. Nonetheless, HHS can be deadly. According to the American Diabetes Association (ADA), while DKA has a death rate of less than 5%, that figure can reach around 15% for HHS. Luckily, HHS is rare. The ADA says the annual rate for DKA ranges from 4.6 to 8 episodes per 1,000 people admitted to the hospital. HHS accounts for less than 1% of hospital admissions related primarily to diabetes. HHS is most common in elderly people with new-onset Type 2 diabetes, particularly those who live in nursing homes, or in older people who have been diagnosed with Type 2 diabetes but who are unaware that their blood glucose is high or who haven’t had enough fluid intake. Compounding the problem is that the thirst mechanism can be impaired in older people, and they’re more apt to have kidney problems, Dr. Hellman says. When a person’s thirst mechanism is impaired, the kidneys — which normally work to remove excess glucose from the blood — begin to conserve water. That leads to a higher glucose concentration in the bloodstream. In many people, HHS begins with an infection, such as a urinary tract infection or pneumonia. Unlike DKA, which develops relatively quickly, HHS develops over several days, or even weeks. “Diagnosis is sometimes a problem,” Dr. Hellman sa Continue reading >>
Diabetic Hyperosmolar Syndrome
Print Overview Diabetic hyperosmolar (hi-pur-oz-MOE-lur) syndrome is a serious condition caused by extremely high blood sugar levels. The condition most commonly occurs in people with type 2 diabetes. It's often triggered by illness or infection. As a result of diabetic hyperosmolar syndrome, your body tries to rid itself of the excess blood sugar by passing it into your urine. Left untreated, diabetic hyperosmolar syndrome can lead to life-threatening dehydration. Prompt medical care is essential. Symptoms Diabetic hyperosmolar syndrome can take days or weeks to develop. Possible signs and symptoms include: Blood sugar level of 600 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL) or 33.3 millimoles per liter (mmol/L) or higher Excessive thirst Dry mouth Increased urination Warm, dry skin Fever Drowsiness, confusion Hallucinations Vision loss Convulsions Coma When to see a doctor Consult your doctor if your blood sugar is persistently higher than the target range your doctor recommends, or if you have signs or symptoms of diabetic hyperosmolar syndrome, such as: Excessive thirst Increased urination Warm, dry skin Dry mouth Fever Seek emergency care if: Your blood sugar level is 400 mg/dL (22.2 mmol/L) or higher and doesn't improve despite following your doctor's instructions for treatment. Don't wait until your blood sugar is high enough to cause diabetic hyperosmolar syndrome. You have confusion, vision changes or other signs of dehydration. Causes Diabetic hyperosmolar syndrome may be triggered by: Illness or infection Not following a diabetes treatment plan or having an inadequate treatment plan Certain medications, such as water pills (diuretics) Sometimes undiagnosed diabetes results in diabetic hyperosmolar syndrome. Risk factors Your risk of developing diabetic hyperosmolar synd Continue reading >>
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Acute Complications Of Diabetes - Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic Nonketotic State
- [Voiceover] Diabetes mellitus and its associated complications are the 8th leading cause of death worldwide. Now normally we think of both type 1 and type 2 diabetes as being more chronic conditions that result in complications such as kidney disease and cardiovascular disease over years to decades. And this is true, but there are also a couple of very important acute complications of diabetes mellitus. And these are known as diabetic ketoacidosis, or DKA for short, and hyperosmolar hyperglycemic non-ketotic state, or HHNS for short. And unfortunately these acute complications can be very serious, especially HHNS, which has a mortality rate of eight to 20%. In this video, let's discuss hyperosmolar hyperglycemic non-ketotic state. Now the name hyperosmolar hyperglycemic non-ketotic state is pretty descriptive in regards to the metabolism that underlies the disease. However, it does not really describe the clinical presentation of the condition. So let's start with that. And most commonly, someone with HHNS has already been diagnosed with diabetes, and this occurs sometime after their initial diagnosis. And since they have diabetes, they likely will have hyperglycemia, which is one of the defining characteristics of diabetes mellitus. And as we'll discuss in just a minute, it's this hyperglycemia that's driving a lot of the events that are occurring in HHNS. Now over a period of days to weeks, someone with HHNS is gonna become pretty sick, and they're gonna have symptoms of fatigue, maybe some weight loss. They're gonna have extreme thirst and frequent urination. On physical exam they'll have signs of dehydration, such as a high heart rate, known as tachycardia, a low blood pressure known as hypotension, the mucus membranes in their mouth may be dry, and their skin may Continue reading >>
Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State (hhs)
Severely uncontrolled type 2 diabetes, usually over a relatively short period of time, can lead to a dangerous rise in blood glucose known as hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state, or HHS. This condition—and the enormous dehydration that accompanies it—occurs most often in older persons with type 2 diabetes, including nursing home residents. Patients are likely to develop HHS if they forget to take their medicines or develop an underlying illness. This illness can range from something as mild as a urinary tract infection to a major event such as a heart attack. Patients with diabetes should alert their health care provider as soon as they become ill because of the risk of HHS. Patients with HHS have extremely high blood glucose levels, often over 600 mg/dl. If you notice any of these signs or symptoms, seek medical attention: Dry mouth Cool hands and feet Fast heart rate Feeling thirsty Urinating often Nausea, vomiting, or stomach ache Mental changes including confusion, slurred speech, or weakness on one side of the body (similar to the symptoms of a stroke) Seizures Patients with HHS are usually admitted to the hospital’s intensive care unit (ICU) because they must be watched very closely as they recover. These patients are extremely dehydrated and must be treated with large amounts of intravenous (IV) fluids to help bring blood glucose down to healthy levels As the patient is rehydrated, the health care provider will give IV insulin to lower the patient’s blood glucose levels Blood tests every 2 to 4 hours will monitor the patient’s blood glucose and electrolytes to make sure they return to normal Once the patient’s blood glucose levels improve and they are properly rehydrated, patients will be transitioned back to a regular diabetes treatment regimen to be ta Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis And Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar Syndrome
In Brief Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperosmolar hyperglycemic syndrome (HHS) are two acute complications of diabetes that can result in increased morbidity and mortality if not efficiently and effectively treated. Mortality rates are 2–5% for DKA and 15% for HHS, and mortality is usually a consequence of the underlying precipitating cause(s) rather than a result of the metabolic changes of hyperglycemia. Effective standardized treatment protocols, as well as prompt identification and treatment of the precipitating cause, are important factors affecting outcome. The two most common life-threatening complications of diabetes mellitus include diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar syndrome (HHS). Although there are important differences in their pathogenesis, the basic underlying mechanism for both disorders is a reduction in the net effective concentration of circulating insulin coupled with a concomitant elevation of counterregulatory hormones (glucagon, catecholamines, cortisol, and growth hormone). These hyperglycemic emergencies continue to be important causes of morbidity and mortality among patients with diabetes. DKA is reported to be responsible for more than 100,000 hospital admissions per year in the United States1 and accounts for 4–9% of all hospital discharge summaries among patients with diabetes.1 The incidence of HHS is lower than DKA and accounts for <1% of all primary diabetic admissions.1 Most patients with DKA have type 1 diabetes; however, patients with type 2 diabetes are also at risk during the catabolic stress of acute illness.2 Contrary to popular belief, DKA is more common in adults than in children.1 In community-based studies, more than 40% of African-American patients with DKA were >40 years of age and more than 2 Continue reading >>
Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State
A serious metabolic complication of diabetes characterized by severe hyperglycemia, hyperosmolality, and volume depletion, in the absence of severe ketoacidosis. Occurs most commonly in older patients with type 2 diabetes. Contributes to less than 1% of all diabetes-related admissions. However, mortality is high (5% to 15%). Presents with polyuria, polydipsia, weakness, weight loss, tachycardia, dry mucus membranes, poor skin turgor, hypotension, and, in severe cases, shock. Altered sensorium (lethargy, disorientation, stupor) is common and correlates best with effective serum osmolality. Coma is rare and, if seen, is usually associated with a serum osmolality >340 mOsm/kg. Treatment includes correction of fluid deficit and electrolyte abnormalities, and IV insulin. Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic syndrome (HHS), also known as non-ketotic hyperglycemic hyperosmolar syndrome (NKHS), is characterized by profound hyperglycemia (glucose >600 mg/dL), hyperosmolality (effective serum osmolality 320 mOsm/kg), and volume depletion in the absence of significant ketoacidosis (pH >7.3 and HCO3 >15 mEq/L), and is a serious complication of diabetes. HHS may be the first presentation of type 2 diabetes. [1] Kitabchi AE, Umpierrez GE, Murphy MB, et al. Management of hyperglycemic crises in patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2001;24:131-153. [2] Kitabchi AE, Umpierrez GE, Miles JM, et al. Hyperglycemic crises in adult patients with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2009;32:1335-1343. Although both HHS and diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) are often discussed as distinct entities, they represent 2 points on the spectrum of metabolic derangements in diabetes, [3] Bhattacharyya OK, Estey EA, Cheng AY. Update on the Canadian Diabetes Association 2008 clinical practice guidelines. Can Fam Physician. 2009; Continue reading >>
Diabetic Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar Syndrome
HHS is a condition of: Extremely high blood sugar (glucose) level Decreased alertness or consciousness (in many cases) Buildup of ketones in the body (ketoacidosis) may also occur. But it is unusual and is often mild compared with diabetic ketoacidosis. HHS is more often seen in people with type 2 diabetes who don't have their diabetes under control. It may also occur in those who have not been diagnosed with diabetes. The condition may be brought on by: Infection Other illness, such as heart attack or stroke Medicines that decrease the effect of insulin in the body Medicines or conditions that increase fluid loss Normally, the kidneys try to make up for a high glucose level in the blood by allowing the extra glucose to leave the body in the urine. But this also causes the body to lose water. If you do not drink enough water, or you drink fluids that contain sugar and keep eating foods with carbohydrates, the kidneys may become overwhelmed. When this occurs, they are no longer able to get rid of the extra glucose. As a result, the glucose level in your blood can become very high. The loss of water also makes the blood more concentrated than normal. This is called hyperosmolarity. It is a condition in which the blood has a high concentration of salt (sodium), glucose, and other substances. This draws the water out of the body's other organs, including the brain. Risk factors include: Impaired thirst Limited access to water (especially in people with dementia or who are bedbound) Older age Poor kidney function Poor management of diabetes, not following the treatment plan as directed Stopping insulin or other medicines that lower glucose level Continue reading >>
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Diabetic Ketoacidosis And Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State In Adults: Clinical Features, Evaluation, And Diagnosis
INTRODUCTION Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS, also known as hyperosmotic hyperglycemic nonketotic state [HHNK]) are two of the most serious acute complications of diabetes. DKA is characterized by ketoacidosis and hyperglycemia, while HHS usually has more severe hyperglycemia but no ketoacidosis (table 1). Each represents an extreme in the spectrum of hyperglycemia. The precipitating factors, clinical features, evaluation, and diagnosis of DKA and HHS in adults will be reviewed here. The epidemiology, pathogenesis, and treatment of these disorders are discussed separately. DKA in children is also reviewed separately. (See "Diabetic ketoacidosis and hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state in adults: Epidemiology and pathogenesis".) Continue reading >>
Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State
Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state is a life-threatening emergency manifested by marked elevation of blood glucose, hyperosmolarity, and little or no ketosis. With the dramatic increase in the prevalence of type 2 diabetes and the aging population, this condition may be encountered more frequently by family physicians in the future. Although the precipitating causes are numerous, underlying infections are the most common. Other causes include certain medications, non-compliance, undiagnosed diabetes, substance abuse, and coexisting disease. Physical findings of hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state include those associated with profound dehydration and various neurologic symptoms such as coma. The first step of treatment involves careful monitoring of the patient and laboratory values. Vigorous correction of dehydration with the use of normal saline is critical, requiring an average of 9 L in 48 hours. After urine output has been established, potassium replacement should begin. Once fluid replacement has been initiated, insulin should be given as an initial bolus of 0.15 U per kg intravenously, followed by a drip of 0.1 U per kg per hour until the blood glucose level falls to between 250 and 300 mg per dL. Identification and treatment of the underlying and precipitating causes are necessary. It is important to monitor the patient for complications such as vascular occlusions (e.g., mesenteric artery occlusion, myocardial infarction, low-flow syndrome, and disseminated intravascular coagulopathy) and rhabdomyolysis. Finally, physicians should focus on preventing future episodes using patient education and instruction in self-monitoring. Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state is a relatively common, life-threatening endocrine emergency that is reported in all age groups,1 but it most Continue reading >>
