Effect Of Severe Acidosis On Vasoactive Effects Of Epinephrine And Norepinephrine In Human Distal Mammary Artery - Sciencedirect
Volume 147, Issue 5 , May 2014, Pages 1698-1705 Acidosis is a very common pathologic process in perioperative management. However, how to correct severe acidosis to improve the efficacy of vasoconstrictors in hemodynamically unstable patients is still debated. The present study investigated whether severe extracellular acidosis influences the vasoactive properties of vasoconstrictors on human isolated arteries. Segments of intact distal internal mammary arteries were removed from 41 patients undergoing artery bypass grafting. The arterial rings were washed in Krebs-Henseleit solution and suspended in an organ bath. The rings were set at a pretension equivalent of 100 mm Hg, and the relaxation response to 10 M acetylcholine was verified. Concentrationresponse curves for epinephrine, norepinephrine, methoxamine (1A/D-adrenoceptor agonist), phenylephrine (equipotent agonist of 1A/B-adrenoceptors), and clonidine (2-adrenoceptor agonist) were achieved under control conditions (pH 7.40) and under acidic conditions by substitution of the Krebs-Henseleit solution with a modified solution. Decreasing the pH from 7.40 to 7.20, 7.0, or 6.80 did not significantly alter the potency and efficacy of epinephrine and norepinephrine, although the standardized effect size was sometimes large. Severe acidosis (pH6.80) did not significantly change the potency and efficacy of phenylephrine and clonidine, although it increased the efficacy and potency of methoxamine (P<.001 and P=.04 vs paired control conditions, respectively). Extracellular acidosis did not impair the vasoactive properties of epinephrine and norepinephrine in human medium-size arteries until pH 6.80. The results of the present study also suggest that acidosis might potentiate arterial responsiveness to vasoconstrictors, mos Continue reading >>
Acid-base Balance Understanding Is Critical To Treat Patients
Acid-Base Balance Understanding is Critical to Treat Patients By James Tanis, MD, NRP dvxxtrvscafftzcatwdtzeytyyc , Joseph E. DiCorpo, BSC, MMSc, PA , Daniel Friedman, DO, EMT-P , Mark Merlin, DO, EMT-P, FACEP Every critically ill patient we encounter in the field will have an acid-base derangement; therefore, an understanding of acid-base balance is critical to properly treat patients. First, its important you appreciate that every chemical reaction that occurs in the human body is regulated or substantially influenced by the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration in the surrounding tissue, from the way hemoglobin picks up and delivers oxygen to the tissues to the way that sugar, protein and fat are metabolized by the body. The regulation of hydrogen ions, which we measure as pH, is what acid-base balance refers to. The bodys concentration of hydrogen ions must be maintained within a strict range for optimal cellular function, and even a small deviation can significantly affect a patient.1Its a complex balancing act that you can affect based upon your assessment of the patients vital signs. An acid has a pH below 7.0 and an increased concentration of hydrogen ions, while an alkaline has a pH above 7.0 and a decreased concentration of hydrogen ions. The body maintains a slightly alkaline pH range of 7.35 to 7.45. Therefore, a pH higher than this range is in a state of alkalosis and a pH below this range is considered to be acidosis. A pH of 6.9 on the acid side and 7.8 on the alkaline side are considered non-compatible with life.1(See Table 1, above) An excess of acid is usually produced during the normal process of metabolism, so the body must rid itself of this excess acid to maintain the acid-base balance and keep a normal hydrogen ion concentration. Three defense mechanis Continue reading >>
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Understanding Lactate In Sepsis & Using It To Our Advantage
You are here: Home / PULMCrit / Understanding lactate in sepsis & Using it to our advantage Understanding lactate in sepsis & Using it to our advantage Once upon a time a 60-year-old man was transferred from the oncology ward to the ICU for treatment of neutropenic septic shock. Over the course of the morning he started rigoring and dropped his blood pressure from 140/70 to 70/40 within a few hours, refractory to four liters of crystalloid. In the ICU his blood pressure didn't improve with vasopressin and norepinephrine titrated to 40 mcg/min. His MAP remained in the high 40s, he was mottled up to the knees, and he wasn't making any urine. Echocardiography suggested a moderately reduced left ventricle ejection fraction, not terrible but perhaps inadequate for his current condition. Dobutamine has usually been our choice of inotrope in septic shock. However, this patient was so unstable that we chose epinephrine instead. On an epinephrine infusion titrated to 10 mcg/min his blood pressure improved immediately, his mottling disappeared, and he started having excellent urine output. However, his lactate level began to rise. He was improving clinically, so we suspected that the lactate was due to the epinephrine infusion. We continued the epinephrine, he continued to improve, and his lactate continued to rise. His lactate level increased as high as 15 mM, at which point the epinephrine infusion was being titrated off anyway. Once the epinephrine was stopped his lactate rapidly normalized. He continued to improve briskly. By the next morning he was off vasopressors and ready for transfer back to the ward. This was eye-opening. It seemed that the epinephrine infusion was the pivotal intervention which helped him stabilize. However, while clinically improving him, the epineph Continue reading >>
Lactate Clearance And Vasopressor Seem To Be Predictors For Mortality In Severe Sepsis Patients With Lactic Acidosis Supplementing Sodium Bicarbonate: A Retrospective Analysis
Lactate Clearance and Vasopressor Seem to Be Predictors for Mortality in Severe Sepsis Patients with Lactic Acidosis Supplementing Sodium Bicarbonate: A Retrospective Analysis Contributed equally to this work with: Su Mi Lee, Seong Eun Kim Affiliation: Department of Internal Medicine, Dong-A University, Busan, Korea Contributed equally to this work with: Su Mi Lee, Seong Eun Kim Affiliation: Department of Internal Medicine, Dong-A University, Busan, Korea Affiliation: Department of Internal Medicine, Dong-A University, Busan, Korea Affiliation: Department of Internal Medicine, Dong-A University, Busan, Korea Affiliation: Department of Internal Medicine, Dong-A University, Busan, Korea Affiliations: Department of Internal Medicine, Dong-A University, Busan, Korea, Institute of Medical Science, Dong-A University College of Medicine, Busan, Korea Initial lactate level, lactate clearance, C-reactive protein, and procalcitonin in critically ill patients with sepsis are associated with hospital mortality. However, no study has yet discovered which factor is most important for mortality in severe sepsis patients with lactic acidosis. We sought to clarify this issue in patients with lactic acidosis who were supplementing with sodium bicarbonate. Data were collected from a single center between May 2011 and April 2014. One hundred nine patients with severe sepsis and lactic acidosis who were supplementing with sodium bicarbonate were included. The 7-day mortality rate was 71.6%. The survivors had higher albumin levels and lower SOFA, APACHE II scores, vasopressor use, and follow-up lactate levels at an elapsed time after their initial lactate levels were checked. In particular, a decrement in lactate clearance of at least 10% for the first 6 hours, 24 hours, and 48 hours of tre Continue reading >>
Cardiac Pressors - Anesthesia General
Critically ill patients often require cardiac inotrope and/or cardiac pressors support to maintain adequate cardiac output and adequate blood pressure to sustain end-organ perfusion. Because end-organ perfusion has already likely been compromised and may continue to be problematic despite use of these agents, anaerobic metabolism rather than aerobic metabolism is likely to be generating a limited amount adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in the hypoperfused tissues. The consequence is lactic acid production and acidosis. Additionally, critically ill patients may have other causes of acidosis contributing to the overall acidotic state including renal failure, hyperchloremia, or ketoacidosis. The acidosis may be severe with pH values well below 7.0. Binding of the cardiac inotropes or cardiac pressors agents to their receptors is influenced by pH, along with other factors such as temperature and concentration. Presumably, the greater the deviation in either direction from the optimal pH for the drug-ligand interaction, the less binding that will occur and hence, the less the effect of the drug. This has led to the widely held opinion that cardiac inotropes and cardiac pressors dont work at the acidic pH values often encountered in critically ill patients. The actual relationship is much more complex since the target of the cardiac inotropes and cardiac pressors, the alpha and beta adrenergic receptors, includes several subtypes whose individual responsiveness to these agents is quite variable under acidic conditions. The variability in responsiveness stems from not only changes in affinity for binding to the receptors but also because acidic conditions have been shown to change receptor numbers on cell surfaces as well as alter the downstream regulation mediated by G-coupled p Continue reading >>
Vasopressor Agentsinfluence Of Acidosis On Cardiac And Vascular Responsiveness
VASOPRESSOR AGENTSInfluence of Acidosis on Cardiac and Vascular Responsiveness This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Clinical observations have indicated that patients who are in shock and who have coexisting acidosis respond relatively poorly to sympathomimetic amines. In experiments with dogs, it was found that, in the presence of acidosis, the pressor action of epinephrine, norepinephrine and metaraminol was considerably reduced. The effect on cardiac rhythm was also considerably lessened after the pH value of the blood had been lowered. In view of these observations in animals, six human patients with profound shock and acidosis were studied. All had a considerably lessened pressor response to vasopressor agents; then, after elevation of the blood pH by intravenous infusion of a 1-molar solution of sodium lactate, responsiveness was restored. These observations emphasize the desirability of close observation of the acid-base status, and early treatment of acidosis, as an important aspect in the management of patients with shock. Full text is available as a scanned copy of the original print version. Get a printable copy (PDF file) of the complete article (662K), or click on a page image below to browse page by page. Links to PubMed are also available for Selected References . Continue reading >>
Lactic Acidosis - Now@nejm Now@nejm
Posted by Carla Rothaus December 11th, 2014 When lactic acidosis accompanies low-flow states or sepsis, mortality rates increase sharply. A new review summarizes our current understanding of the pathophysiological aspects of lactic acidosis, as well as the approaches to its diagnosis andmanagement. Lactic acidosis results from the accumulation of lactate and protons in the body fluids and is often associated with poor clinical outcomes. The effect of lactic acidosis is governed by its severity and the clinical context. Mortality is increased by a factor of nearly three when lactic acidosis accompanies low-flow states or sepsis, and the higher the lactate level, the worse theoutcome. Hyperlactatemia occurs when lactate production exceeds lactate consumption. In tissue hypoxia, whether global or localized, lactate is overproduced and underutilized as a result of impaired mitochondrial oxidation. Even if systemic oxygen delivery is not low enough to cause generalized hypoxia, microcirculatory dysfunction can cause regional tissue hypoxia and hyperlactatemia. Hyperlactatemia can also result from aerobic glycolysis, a term denoting stimulated glycolysis that depends on factors other than tissue hypoxia. Activated in response to stress, aerobic glycolysis is an effective, albeit inefficient, mechanism for rapid generation of ATP. In the hyperdynamic stage of sepsis, epinephrine-dependent stimulation of the (beta)2-adrenoceptor augments the glycolytic flux both directly and through enhancement of the sarcolemmal Na+,K+-ATPase (which consumes large quantities of ATP). Other disorders associated with elevated epinephrine levels, such as severe asthma (especially with overuse of beta2-adrenergic agonists), extensive trauma, cardiogenic or hemorrhagic shock, and pheochromocytoma, Continue reading >>
Efficient Extra- And Intracellular Alkalinization Improves Cardiovascular Functions In Severe Lactic Acidosis Induced By Hemorrhagic Shock | Anesthesiology | Asa Publications
Efficient Extra- and Intracellular Alkalinization Improves Cardiovascular Functions in Severe Lactic Acidosis Induced by Hemorrhagic Shock From the CHU Nancy, Service de Ranimation Mdicale Brabois, Pole Cardiovasculaire et Ranimation Mdicale, Hpital Brabois, Vandoeuvre les Nancy, France; Institut National de la Sant Et de la Recherche Mdicale (INSERM) U1116, Equipe 2, Facult de Mdecine, Vandoeuvre les Nancy, France; Universit de Lorraine, Nancy, France (A.K., N.D., and B.L.); INSERM U1116, Equipe 2, Facult de Mdecine, Vandoeuvre les Nancy, France; Universit de Lorraine, Nancy, France (N.S., K.I., and C.S.); and Critallographie, Rsonnance Magntique et Modlisation (CRM2), Unit Mdicale de Recherche (UMR), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Institut Jean Barriol, Facult des Sciences et Technologies, Vandoeuvre les Nancy, France; Universit de Lorraine, Nancy, France (J.-M.E. and S.L.). From the CHU Nancy, Service de Ranimation Mdicale Brabois, Pole Cardiovasculaire et Ranimation Mdicale, Hpital Brabois, Vandoeuvre les Nancy, France; Institut National de la Sant Et de la Recherche Mdicale (INSERM) U1116, Equipe 2, Facult de Mdecine, Vandoeuvre les Nancy, France; Universit de Lorraine, Nancy, France (A.K., N.D., and B.L.); INSERM U1116, Equipe 2, Facult de Mdecine, Vandoeuvre les Nancy, France; Universit de Lorraine, Nancy, France (N.S., K.I., and C.S.); and Critallographie, Rsonnance Magntique et Modlisation (CRM2), Unit Mdicale de Recherche (UMR), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Institut Jean Barriol, Facult des Sciences et Technologies, Vandoeuvre les Nancy, France; Universit de Lorraine, Nancy, France (J.-M.E. and S.L.). From the CHU Nancy, Service de Ranimation Mdicale Brabois, Pole Cardiovasculaire et Ranimation Mdicale, Hpital Bra Continue reading >>
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Approach To Hemodynamic Shock And Vasopressors
Approach to Hemodynamic Shock and Vasopressors Departments of *Nephrology and General, Visceral and Transplant Surgery, University Hospital, University Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany; and Critical Care Medicine and Nephrology, George Washington University Medical Center, Washington, DC Dr. Stefan Herget-Rosenthal, Klinik fr Nieren- und Hochdruckkrankheiten, Universittsklinikum Essen, Universitt Duisburg-Essen, Hufelandstrasse 55, D-45122 Essen, Germany. Phone: +49-201-723-2552; Fax: +49-201-723-5633; E-mail: stefan.herget-rosenthal{at}uni-due.de Hemodynamic shock (HS) is a clinical syndrome that is commonly observed in hospitalized patients. Prompt recognition and intervention are the cornerstones of mitigating the dire consequences of HS. Untreated HS usually leads to death. Unlike other types of clinical syndromes (e.g., chest pain), for which a clinical diagnosis is made before treatment is initiated in earnest, the treatment of shock often occurs concurrently or ahead of the diagnostic process. The maintenance of end-organ perfusion is critical to prevent irreversible organ injury and failure, and this frequently requires the use of fluid resuscitation and vasopressors. A complete review of all of the signs and symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment of HS has been reviewed in detail elsewhere ( 1 ). This article provides a concise summary of how to approach the patient in HS, diagnostic and therapeutic decision making, and the use of vasopressors. In addition, the effects of vasopressors on end organs with particular focus on renal hemodynamics is reviewed. Clinical Manifestations and Recognition of Hemodynamic Shock HS is classically described as an acute clinical syndrome initiated by ineffective perfusion, resulting in severe dysfunction of organs vital to survival Continue reading >>
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Levo And Ph | Allnurses
we had the most awful night last night starting at the beginning of the shift (1945). got a "code blue to c-section #2" page overhead so the sc and myself (the float/resource nurse) ran there and they're doing compressions on a lady who's not even closed up from her c-s yet! baby was good, but the mom ended up coming to us and it was basically an all night medical code with another official "code blue" called on her at around 0200. first time i've cried on the way home from work anyways, my question was about the levo not working for her bp. her ph was in the 7.2 range on the first abg and she got an amp of hco3. then on the next abg (maybe an hour later) it was down to 7.19. then, since the bp was dropping so fast, the pma in the unit said to just run it wide open, but it wasn't working. the primary nurse (who's very experienced, whereas i've barely been in the icu for 2 years) said that the levo wouldn't do anything for the bp while the ph was so low. can someone explain this? god, every night i work i seem to be overwhelmed with everything i don't know!!! Continue reading >>
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Remember That Cardiac Pressors Do Not Work In A Low-ph Environment
Remember that Cardiac Pressors do not Work in a Low-pH Environment Remember that Cardiac Pressors do not Work in a Low-pH Environment Critically ill patients often require inotropic and/or pressor support to maintain adequate cardiac output and adequate blood pressure to sustain end-organ perfusion. Because end-organ perfusion has already likely been compromised and may continue to be problematic despite use of these agents, anaerobic metabolism rather than aerobic metabolism is likely to be generating a limited amount adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in the hypoperfused tissues. The consequence is lactic acid production and acidosis. Additionally, critically ill patients may have other causes of acidosis contributing to the overall acidotic state including renal failure, hyperchloremia, or ketoacidosis. The acidosis may be severe with pH values well below 7.0. Binding of the inotropic or pressor agents to their receptors is influenced by pH, along with other factors such as temperature and concentration. Presumably, the greater the deviation in either direction from the optimal pH for the drug-ligand interaction, the less binding that will occur and hence, the less the effect of the drug. This has led to the widely held opinion that inotropes and vasopressors dont work at the acidic pH values often encountered in critically ill patients. The actual relationship is much more complex since the target of the inotropes and vasopressors, the alpha and beta adrenergic receptors, includes several subtypes whose individual responsiveness to these agents is quite variable under acidic conditions. Only gold members can continue reading. Log In or Register to continue Continue reading >>
Chapter 23: Use Of Vasopressors
1) Which of the following conditions can result in a lowering of blood pressure in critically ill patients? B.Decreased pulmonary capillary wedge pressure 2) The central venous pressure (CVP) catheter is a device that is used to effectively perform what function in critically ill patients? B.Administer drugs directly into the central circulation 3) Which of the following statements about central venous oxygen saturation is correct? A.It indirectly measures oxygen extraction by tissues. B.It may be low in inadequately volume-resuscitated patients with septic shock. C.It measures adequacy of volume resuscitation more accurately than does blood pressure measurement. D.It should be targeted to a value in excess of 70%. 4) Which of the following parameters is a measurement of regional perfusion? A.Arterial blood lactate concentration 5) Stimulation of the beta adrenergic receptor by agonists results in a physiologic response mediated by which of the following? 7) Which of the following outcomes is a goal that should be achieved within THREE hours of presentation in a patient with septic shock? 8) Which of the following explains the development of lactic acidosis by a catecholamine? A.Enhanced vasoconstriction in peripheral arteries C.Mobilization of lactate from peripheral tissues 9) Which of the following catecholamines is associated with a fall in intramucosal pHi and rise in blood lactate concentration during treatment? 12) Which of the following statements is true regarding the use of corticosteroid therapy for the treatment of sepsis? A.It should be used in all patients with sepsis. B.It should be started within 48 hours of the diagnosis of severe sepsis. C.It should be used when hemodynamic goals are not achieved despite fluid resuscitation and vasopressor therapy. D. Continue reading >>
Lactic Acidosis Treatment & Management: Approach Considerations, Sodium Bicarbonate, Tromethamine
Author: Kyle J Gunnerson, MD; Chief Editor: Michael R Pinsky, MD, CM, Dr(HC), FCCP, MCCM more... Treatment is directed towards correcting the underlying cause of lactic acidosis and optimizing tissue oxygen delivery. The former is addressed by various therapies, including administration of appropriate antibiotics, surgical drainage and debridement of a septic focus, chemotherapy of malignant disorders, discontinuation of causative drugs, and dietary modification in certain types of congenital lactate acidosis. Cardiovascular collapse secondary to hypovolemia or sepsis should be treated with fluid replacement. Both crystalloids and colloids can restore intravascular volume, but hydroxyethyl starch solutions should be avoided owing to increased mortality. [ 21 ] Excessive normal saline administration can cause a nongap metabolic acidosis due to hyperchloremia, which has been associated with increased acute kidney injury. [ 32 ] Balanced salt solutions such as Ringer lactate and Plasma-Lyte will not cause a nongap metabolic acidosis and may reduce the need for renal replacement therapy; however, these can cause a metabolic alkalosis. [ 33 ] No randomized, controlled trial has yet established the safest and most effective crystalloid. If a colloid is indicated, albumin should be used. Despite appropriate fluid management, vasopressors or inotropes may still be required to augment oxygen delivery. Acidemia decreases the response to catecholamines, and higher doses may be needed. Conversely, high doses may exacerbate ischemia in critical tissue beds. Careful dose titration is needed to maximize benefit and reduce harm. Lactic acidosis causes a compensatory increase in minute ventilation. Patients may be tachypneic initially, but respiratory muscle fatigue can ensue rapidly a Continue reading >>
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Lactic Acidosis: Clinical Implications And Management Strategies
Lactic acidosis: Clinical implications and management strategies Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine. 2015 September;82(9):615-624 Quality Officer, Medical Intensive Care Unit, Departments of Pulmonary Medicine and Critical Care Medicine, Respiratory Institute, Cleveland Clinic; Assistant Professor, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine of Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH Department of Pharmacy, Cleveland Clinic; Assistant Professor, Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine of Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH Medical ICU Clinical Specialist, Department of Pharmacy, Cleveland Clinic Director, Medical Intensive Care Unit, Department of Critical Care Medicine, Respiratory Institute, Cleveland Clinic Address: Anita J. Reddy, MD, Department of Critical Care Medicine, Respiratory Institute, A90, Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195; e-mail: [email protected] Andersen LW, Mackenhauer J, Roberts JC, Berg KM, Cocchi MN, Donnino MW. Etiology and therapeutic approach to elevated lactate levels. Mayo Clin Proc 2013; 88:11271140. Fuller BM, Dellinger RP. Lactate as a hemodynamic marker in the critically ill. Curr Opin Crit Care 2012; 18:267272. Fall PJ, Szerlip HM. Lactic acidosis: from sour milk to septic shock. J Intensive Care Med 2005; 20:255271. Kruse O, Grunnet N, Barfod C. Blood lactate as a predictor for in-hospital mortality in patients admitted acutely to hospital: a systematic review. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med 2011;19:74. Howell MD, Donnino M, Clardy P, Talmor D, Shapiro NI. Occult hypoperfusion and mortality in patients with suspected infection. Intensive Care Med 2007; 33:18921899. Puskarich MA, Trzeciak S, Shapiro NI, et al. Outcomes of patients undergoing early sepsis resuscitation for cryptic shock compa Continue reading >>
Hemodynamic Consequences Of Severe Lactic Acidosis In Shock States: From Bench To Bedside
Hemodynamic consequences of severe lactic acidosis in shock states: from bench to bedside Antoine Kimmoun , Emmanuel Novy , Thomas Auchet , Nicolas Ducrocq , and Bruno Levy CHU Nancy, Service de Ranimation Mdicale Brabois, Pole Cardiovasculaire et Ranimation Mdicale, Hpital de Brabois, Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, 54511 France Universit de Lorraine, Nancy, 54000 France INSERM U1116, Groupe Choc, Facult de Mdecine, Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, 54511 France CHU Nancy, Service de Ranimation Mdicale Brabois, Pole Cardiovasculaire et Ranimation Mdicale, Hpital de Brabois, Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, 54511 France Universit de Lorraine, Nancy, 54000 France CHU Nancy, Service de Ranimation Mdicale Brabois, Pole Cardiovasculaire et Ranimation Mdicale, Hpital de Brabois, Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, 54511 France CHU Nancy, Service de Ranimation Mdicale Brabois, Pole Cardiovasculaire et Ranimation Mdicale, Hpital de Brabois, Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, 54511 France CHU Nancy, Service de Ranimation Mdicale Brabois, Pole Cardiovasculaire et Ranimation Mdicale, Hpital de Brabois, Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, 54511 France Universit de Lorraine, Nancy, 54000 France INSERM U1116, Groupe Choc, Facult de Mdecine, Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, 54511 France CHU Nancy, Service de Ranimation Mdicale Brabois, Pole Cardiovasculaire et Ranimation Mdicale, Hpital de Brabois, Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, 54511 France Universit de Lorraine, Nancy, 54000 France INSERM U1116, Groupe Choc, Facult de Mdecine, Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, 54511 France Antoine Kimmoun, Email: moc.liamg@nuommika . Author information Copyright and License information Disclaimer Copyright Kimmoun et al.; licensee BioMed Central. 2015 This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License ( ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution Continue reading >>
