Ketone Body Metabolism
Ketone body metabolism includes ketone body synthesis (ketogenesis) and breakdown (ketolysis). When the body goes from the fed to the fasted state the liver switches from an organ of carbohydrate utilization and fatty acid synthesis to one of fatty acid oxidation and ketone body production. This metabolic switch is amplified in uncontrolled diabetes. In these states the fat-derived energy (ketone bodies) generated in the liver enter the blood stream and are used by other organs, such as the brain, heart, kidney cortex and skeletal muscle. Ketone bodies are particularly important for the brain which has no other substantial non-glucose-derived energy source. The two main ketone bodies are acetoacetate (AcAc) and 3-hydroxybutyrate (3HB) also referred to as β-hydroxybutyrate, with acetone the third, and least abundant. Ketone bodies are always present in the blood and their levels increase during fasting and prolonged exercise. After an over-night fast, ketone bodies supply 2–6% of the body's energy requirements, while they supply 30–40% of the energy needs after a 3-day fast. When they build up in the blood they spill over into the urine. The presence of elevated ketone bodies in the blood is termed ketosis and the presence of ketone bodies in the urine is called ketonuria. The body can also rid itself of acetone through the lungs which gives the breath a fruity odour. Diabetes is the most common pathological cause of elevated blood ketones. In diabetic ketoacidosis, high levels of ketone bodies are produced in response to low insulin levels and high levels of counter-regulatory hormones. Ketone bodies The term ‘ketone bodies’ refers to three molecules, acetoacetate (AcAc), 3-hydroxybutyrate (3HB) and acetone (Figure 1). 3HB is formed from the reduction of AcAc i Continue reading >>
Reagents For Modifying Aldehydes And Ketones—section 3.3
Aldehydes and ketones are present in a number of low molecular weight molecules such as drugs, steroid hormones, reducing sugars and metabolic intermediates (e.g., pyruvate and α-ketoglutarate). Except for polysaccharides containing free reducing sugars, however, biopolymers generally lack aldehyde and ketone groups. Even those aldehydes and ketones that are found in the open-ring form of simple carbohydrates are usually in equilibrium with the closed-ring form of the sugar. The infrequent occurrence of aldehydes and ketones in biomolecules has stimulated the development of techniques to selectively introduce these functional groups, thus providing unique sites for chemical modification and greatly extending the applications of the probes found in this section. Fluorescent modification of aldehyde or carboxylic acid groups in carbohydrates is also frequently utilized for their analysis by HPLC, capillary electrophoresis and other methods. Periodate Oxidation The most common method for introducing aldehydes and ketones into polysaccharides and glycoproteins (including antibodies) is by periodate-mediated oxidation of vicinal diols. These introduced aldehydes and ketones can then be modified with fluorescent or biotinylated hydrazine, hydroxylamine or amine derivatives to label the polysaccharide or glycoprotein. For example, some of the hydrazine derivatives described in this section have been used to detect periodate-oxidized glycoproteins in gels. The Pro-Q Emerald 300 and Pro-Q Emerald 488 Glycoprotein Gel and Blot Stain Kits (P21855, P21857, M33307; Detecting Protein Modifications—Section 9.4) are based on periodate oxidation of glycoproteins and subsequent labeling with a Pro-Q Emerald dye. Periodate oxidation of the 3'-terminal ribose provides one of the few met Continue reading >>
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- Insulin, glucagon and somatostatin stores in the pancreas of subjects with type-2 diabetes and their lean and obese non-diabetic controls
- St. Luke’s Spotlights Critical Link Between Type 2 Diabetes and Heart Disease in Partnership with Boehringer Ingelheim and Eli Lilly and Company
Ketone Bodies
Ketone bodies Acetone Acetoacetic acid (R)-beta-Hydroxybutyric acid Ketone bodies are three water-soluble molecules (acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate, and their spontaneous breakdown product, acetone) that are produced by the liver from fatty acids[1] during periods of low food intake (fasting), carbohydrate restrictive diets, starvation, prolonged intense exercise,[2], alcoholism or in untreated (or inadequately treated) type 1 diabetes mellitus. These ketone bodies are readily picked up by the extra-hepatic tissues, and converted into acetyl-CoA which then enters the citric acid cycle and is oxidized in the mitochondria for energy.[3] In the brain, ketone bodies are also used to make acetyl-CoA into long-chain fatty acids. Ketone bodies are produced by the liver under the circumstances listed above (i.e. fasting, starving, low carbohydrate diets, prolonged exercise and untreated type 1 diabetes mellitus) as a result of intense gluconeogenesis, which is the production of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources (not including fatty acids).[1] They are therefore always released into the blood by the liver together with newly produced glucose, after the liver glycogen stores have been depleted (these glycogen stores are depleted after only 24 hours of fasting)[1]. When two acetyl-CoA molecules lose their -CoAs, (or Co-enzyme A groups) they can form a (covalent) dimer called acetoacetate. Beta-hydroxybutyrate is a reduced form of acetoacetate, in which the ketone group is converted into an alcohol (or hydroxyl) group (see illustration on the right). Both are 4-carbon molecules, that can readily be converted back into acetyl-CoA by most tissues of the body, with the notable exception of the liver. Acetone is the decarboxylated form of acetoacetate which cannot be converted Continue reading >>
The Many Benefits Of Ketosis
Along with living an alkaline lifestyle, one of the key principles of my Magic Menopause hormone reset program is eating a ketogenic-friendly diet. This diet puts your body in a fat-burning state called ketosis. My program’s Keto-Alkaline™ Diet includes ketogenic methodologies. It also incorporates the “reality of everyday life” into one’s diet. I’ll explain what I mean about this in just a moment. First, for those of you who aren’t familiar with ketosis, let me give you a short overview. A ketogenic diet is a diet which is low in (unhealthy) carbs and high in (healthy) fats and (healthy) protein. So how does a ketogenic diet work so well at supporting fat loss and other health benefits? It’s really a simple concept at the surface, a bit more complex when you look at the actual physiology. Ketosis is all about what your body uses as fuel. Eating high carbs = high blood glucose (sugar), high insulin, stored fat… and low fat burning, low metabolism and belly fat. Your body’s fuel source is glucose, not fat. Let me explain. When you eat carbs your body’s blood glucose increases and spikes your blood sugar. Your body releases more insulin as a reaction to elevated blood glucose levels. Insulin is produced to get the glucose from your body and into the cells. There it gets converted to energy. Your body burns the glucose to make its energy and then insulin tells the cells to store their energy as carbs or fat (the unhealthy and dreaded belly fat). When you eat a lot of carbs on an ongoing basis (like many Americans do, eating a lot of processed foods, sugar, alcohol, soda and such!) insulin is continually stimulated. This can lead to a health condition called insulin resistance, where the cells start to resist the insulin. When this happens, your blood Continue reading >>
Urine Test Types: Ph, Ketones, Proteins, And Cells
Urine as a Diagnostic Tool A long time ago, disgusting as it may be, people used to actually taste and drink urine in order to try and diagnose a patient's disease! I'm not even kidding you. Thankfully, modern-day doctors do not have to resort to such disgusting and even dangerous methods. One of the reasons the doctor barbers of yesteryear used to drink their patient's urine was to see if it had a sweet taste, often indicative of diabetes mellitus. Finding the sweet-tasting glucose in the urine was covered in detail in another lesson, so we'll focus on other important measurements here instead. Interpreting Urine pH One value that can be measured in the urine is known as urine pH. pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a substance. If the pH is low, then it is acidic. If the pH is high, then it is basic, or alkaline. To remember which is which, I'll give you a little trick that has worked for me. If you grew up watching cartoons, you probably saw some comical ones where cartoonish robbers poured acid on the roof of a bank vault and waited while the acid ate its way downward into the vault, so the robbers could get down there to steal all the cash. If you can recall that acid likes to eat its way downward into things, then you'll remember that acidic substances go down the pH scale. That is to say, their pH numbers are lower than basic substances. Normal urine pH is roughly 4.6-8, with an average of 6. Urine pH can increase, meaning it will become more basic, or alkaline, due to: A urinary tract infection Kidney failure The administration of certain drugs such as sodium bicarbonate Vegetarian diets On the flip side, causes for a decreased, or acidic, urine pH, include: Metabolic or respiratory acidosis Diabetic ketoacidosis, a complication of diabetes mellitus Continue reading >>
Ketone Bodies (urine)
Does this test have other names? Ketone test, urine ketones What is this test? This test is used to check the level of ketones in your urine. Normally, your body burns sugar for energy. But if you have diabetes, you may not have enough insulin for the sugar in your bloodstream to be used for fuel. When this happens, your body burns fat instead and produces substances called ketones. The ketones end up in your blood and urine. It's normal to have a small amount of ketones in your body. But high ketone levels could result in serious illness or death. Checking for ketones keeps this from happening. Why do I need this test? You may need this test if you have a high level of blood sugar. People with high levels of blood sugar often have high ketone levels. If you have high blood sugar levels and type 1 or type 2 diabetes, it's important to check your ketone levels. People without diabetes can also have ketones in the urine if their body is using fat for fuel instead of glucose. This can happen with chronic vomiting, extreme exercise, low-carbohydrate diets, or eating disorders. Checking your ketones is especially important if you have diabetes and: Your blood sugar goes above 300 mg/dL You abuse alcohol You have diarrhea You stop eating carbohydrates like rice and bread You're pregnant You've been fasting You've been vomiting You have an infection Your healthcare provider may order this test, or have you test yourself, if you: Urinate frequently Are often quite thirsty or tired Have muscle aches Have shortness of breath or trouble breathing Have nausea or vomiting Are confused Have a fruity smell to your breath What other tests might I have along with this test? Your healthcare provider may also check for ketones in your blood if you have high levels of ketones in your urine Continue reading >>
1. Nomenclature Of Aldehydes And Ketones
Aldehydes and ketones are organic compounds which incorporate a carbonyl functional group, C=O. The carbon atom of this group has two remaining bonds that may be occupied by hydrogen or alkyl or aryl substituents. If at least one of these substituents is hydrogen, the compound is an aldehyde. If neither is hydrogen, the compound is a ketone. The IUPAC system of nomenclature assigns a characteristic suffix to these classes, al to aldehydes and one to ketones. For example, H2C=O is methanal, more commonly called formaldehyde. Since an aldehyde carbonyl group must always lie at the end of a carbon chain, it is by default position #1, and therefore defines the numbering direction. A ketone carbonyl function may be located anywhere within a chain or ring, and its position is given by a locator number. Chain numbering normally starts from the end nearest the carbonyl group. In cyclic ketones the carbonyl group is assigned position #1, and this number is not cited in the name, unless more than one carbonyl group is present. If you are uncertain about the IUPAC rules for nomenclature you should review them now. Examples of IUPAC names are provided (in blue) in the following diagram. Common names are in red, and derived names in black. In common names carbon atoms near the carbonyl group are often designated by Greek letters. The atom adjacent to the function is alpha, the next removed is beta and so on. Since ketones have two sets of neighboring atoms, one set is labeled α, β etc., and the other α', β' etc. Very simple ketones, such as propanone and phenylethanone (first two examples in the right column), do not require a locator number, since there is only one possible site for a ketone carbonyl function. Likewise, locator numbers are omitted for the simple dialdehyde at t Continue reading >>
Ketones
Excess ketones are dangerous for someone with diabetes... Low insulin, combined with relatively normal glucagon and epinephrine levels, causes fat to be released from fat cells, which then turns into ketones. Excess formation of ketones is dangerous and is a medical emergency In a person without diabetes, ketone production is the body’s normal adaptation to starvation. Blood sugar levels never get too high, because the production is regulated by just the right balance of insulin, glucagon and other hormones. However, in an individual with diabetes, dangerous and life-threatening levels of ketones can develop. What are ketones and why do I need to know about them? Ketones and ketoacids are alternative fuels for the body that are made when glucose is in short supply. They are made in the liver from the breakdown of fats. Ketones are formed when there is not enough sugar or glucose to supply the body’s fuel needs. This occurs overnight, and during dieting or fasting. During these periods, insulin levels are low, but glucagon and epinephrine levels are relatively normal. This combination of low insulin, and relatively normal glucagon and epinephrine levels causes fat to be released from the fat cells. The fats travel through the blood circulation to reach the liver where they are processed into ketone units. The ketone units then circulate back into the blood stream and are picked up by the muscle and other tissues to fuel your body’s metabolism. In a person without diabetes, ketone production is the body’s normal adaptation to starvation. Blood sugar levels never get too high, because the production is regulated by just the right balance of insulin, glucagon and other hormones. However, in an individual with diabetes, dangerous and life-threatening levels of ketone Continue reading >>
Ketones
Ketones are a beneficial product of fat metabolism in the body. When carbohydrate intake is restricted, it lowers blood sugar and insulin levels. As insulin levels fall and energy is needed, fatty acids flow from the fat cells into the bloodstream and are taken up by various cells and metabolized in a process called beta-oxidation. The end result of beta-oxidation is a molecule called acetyl-coA, and as more fatty acids are released and metabolized, acetyl-coA levels in the cells rise. This causes a sort of metabolic “feedback loop” which triggers liver cells to shunt excess acetyl-Coa into ketogenesis, or the making of ketone bodies. Once created, the liver dumps the ketone bodies into the blood stream and they are taken up by skeletal and heart muscle cells at rates of availability. In addition, the brain begins to use ketones as an alternate fuel when blood levels are high enough to cross the blood brain barrier. Testing Laboratory Microbiology - Air Quality - Mold Asbestos - Environmental - Lead emsl.com There are three major types of ketone bodies present in the human blood stream when the metabolic process of ketosis is dominant: Acetoacetate (AcAc) is created first β-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) is created from acetoacetate Acetone is a spontaneously created side product of acetoacetate In times of starvation, or a low carbohydrate intake resulting in low insulin levels, ketone bodies supply up to 50% of the energy requirements for most body tissues, and up to 70% of the energy required by the brain. Glucose is the main source of fuel for neurons when the diet is high in carbohydrates. But when carbs are restricted, ketogenesis becomes the primary fuel process for most cells. During fasting or low carbohydrate intake, levels of ketone bodies in the blood stream can Continue reading >>
Ph-dependent Transfer Hydrogenation Of Ketones With Hcoona As A Hydrogen Donor Promoted By (η6-c6me6)ru Complexes
Department of Material and Life Science, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan, Department of Structural Molecular Science, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies, Myodaiji, Okazaki 444-8585, Japan, and Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Nagoya University, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8602, Japan Synopsis pH-dependent transfer hydrogenation of water-soluble and -insoluble ketones with HCOONa as a hydrogen donor in water and in biphasic media is promoted by an organometallic aqua complex [(η6-C6Me6)RuII(bpy)(H2O)]2+ (1, bpy = 2,2‘-bipyridine) as the catalyst precursor, a formato complex [(η6-C6Me6)RuII(bpy)(HCOO)]2+ (2) as an intermediate of β-hydrogen elimination, and a hydrido complex [(η6-C6Me6)RuII(bpy)H]2+ (3) as the catalyst. Abstract The paper reports on the development of a new class of water-soluble organometallic catalysts for pH-dependent transfer hydrogenation. An organometallic aqua complex [(η6-C6Me6)RuII(bpy)(H2O)]2+ (1, bpy = 2,2‘-bipyridine) acts as a catalyst precursor for pH-dependent transfer hydrogenation of water-soluble and -insoluble ketones with HCOONa as a hydrogen donor in water and in biphasic media. Irrespective of the solubility of the ketones toward water, the rate of the transfer hydrogenation shows a sharp maximum around pH 4.0 (in the case of biphasic media, the pH value of the aqueous phase is adopted). In the absence of the reducible ketones, as a function of pH, complex 1 reacts with HCOONa to provide a formato complex [(η6-C6Me6)RuII(bpy)(HCOO)]+ (2) as an intermediate of β-hydrogen elimination and a hydrido complex [(η6-C6Me6)RuII(bpy)H]+ (3) as the catalyst for the transfer hydrogenation. The structures of 1(PF6)2, 2(HCOO)·HCOOH, and [(η6-C6Me6)RuII(H2O)3]SO4 Continue reading >>
12.7: Reactions Of Aldehydes And Ketones With Amines
The reaction of aldehydes and ketones with ammonia or 1º-amines forms imine derivatives, also known as Schiff bases (compounds having a C=N function). Water is eliminated in the reaction, which is acid-catalyzed and reversible in the same sense as acetal formation. The pH for reactions which form imine compounds must be carefully controlled. The rate at which these imine compounds are formed is generally greatest near a pH of 5, and drops at higher and lower pH's. At high pH there will not be enough acid to protonate the OH in the intermediate to allow for removal as H2O. At low pH most of the amine reactant will be tied up as its ammonium conjugate acid and will become non-nucleophilic. Converting reactants to products simply Examples of imine forming reactions Mechanism of imine formation 1) Nucleophilic attack 2) Proton transfer 3) Protonation of OH 4) Removal of water 5) Deprotonation Imines can be hydrolyzed back to the corresponding primary amine under acidic conditons. Imines are sometimes difficult to isolate and purify due to their sensitivity to hydrolysis. Consequently, other reagents of the type Y–NH2 have been studied, and found to give stable products (R2C=N–Y) useful in characterizing the aldehydes and ketones from which they are prepared. Some of these reagents are listed in the following table, together with the structures and names of their carbonyl reaction products. Hydrazones are used as part of the Wolff-Kishner reduction and will be discussed in more detail in another module. With the exception of unsubstituted hydrazones, these derivatives are easily prepared and are often crystalline solids - even when the parent aldehyde or ketone is a liquid. Since melting points can be determined more quickly and precisely than boiling points, derivative Continue reading >>
Ketone Bodies Formed In The Liver Are Exported To Other Organs
Ketone Bodies In human beings and most other mammals, acetyl-CoA formed in the liver during oxidation of fatty acids may enter the citric acid cycle (stage 2 of Fig. 16-7) or it may be converted to the "ketone bodies" acetoacetate, D-β-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone for export to other tissues. (The term "bodies" is a historical artifact; these compounds are soluble in blood and urine.) Acetone, produced in smaller quantities than the other ketone bodies, is exhaled. Acetoacetate and D-β-hydroxybutyrate are transported by the blood to the extrahepatic tissues, where they are oxidized via the citric acid cycle to provide much of the energy required by tissues such as skeletal and heart muscle and the renal cortex. The brain, which normally prefers glucose as a fuel, can adapt to the use of acetoacetate or D-β-hydroxybutyrate under starvation conditions, when glucose is unavailable. A major determinant of the pathway taken by acetyl-CoA in liver mitochondria is the availability of oxaloacetate to initiate entry of acetyl-CoA into the citric acid cycle. Under some circumstances (such as starvation) oxaloacetate is drawn out of the citric acid cycle for use in synthesizing glucose. When the oxaloacetate concentration is very low, little acetyl-CoA enters the cycle, and ketone body formation is favored. The production and export of ketone bodies from the liver to extrahepatic tissues allows continued oxidation of fatty acids in the liver when acetyl-CoA is not being oxidized via the citric acid cycle. Overproduction of ketone bodies can occur in conditions of severe starvation and in uncontrolled diabetes. The first step in formation of acetoacetate in the liver (Fig. 16-16) is the enzymatic condensation of two molecules of acetyl-CoA, catalyzed by thiolase; this is simply Continue reading >>
Ketone Body Infusion With 3‐hydroxybutyrate Reduces Myocardial Glucose Uptake And Increases Blood Flow In Humans: A Positron Emission Tomography Study
Background High levels of ketone bodies are associated with improved survival as observed with regular exercise, caloric restriction, and—most recently—treatment with sodium–glucose linked transporter 2 inhibitor antidiabetic drugs. In heart failure, indices of ketone body metabolism are upregulated, which may improve energy efficiency and increase blood flow in skeletal muscle and the kidneys. Nevertheless, it is uncertain how ketone bodies affect myocardial glucose uptake and blood flow in humans. Our study was therefore designed to test whether ketone body administration in humans reduces myocardial glucose uptake (MGU) and increases myocardial blood flow. Methods and Results Eight healthy subjects, median aged 60 were randomly studied twice: (1) During 390 minutes infusion of Na‐3‐hydroxybutyrate (KETONE) or (2) during 390 minutes infusion of saline (SALINE), together with a concomitant low‐dose hyperinsulinemic–euglycemic clamp to inhibit endogenous ketogenesis. Myocardial blood flow was measured by 15O‐H2O positron emission tomography/computed tomography, myocardial fatty acid metabolism by 11C‐palmitate positron emission tomography/computed tomography and MGU by 18F‐fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/computed tomography. Similar euglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, and suppressed free fatty acids levels were recorded on both study days; Na‐3‐hydroxybutyrate infusion increased circulating Na‐3‐hydroxybutyrate levels from zero to 3.8±0.5 mmol/L. MGU was halved by hyperketonemia (MGU [nmol/g per minute]: 304±97 [SALINE] versus 156±62 [KETONE], P<0.01), whereas no effects were observed on palmitate uptake oxidation or esterification. Hyperketonemia increased heart rate by ≈25% and myocardial blood flow by 75%. Conclusions Ketone Continue reading >>
10 Things Your Pee Can Tell You About Your Body: Taking A Deep Dive Into Urinalysis, Dehydration, Ketosis, Ph & More!
See, for the past several days, I’ve been randomly grabbing drinking glasses from the shelf in the kitchen… …and peeing into them. And yes, I realize that now you will likely never want to join me at my home for a dinner party. So why the heck am I urinating into our family’s kitchenware? It’s all about better living through science and figuring out ways to live longer and feel better (at least that’s what I tell my wife to appease her). It’s also about my sheer curiosity and desire to delve into an N=1 experiment in self-quantification with urinalysis. It’s also because I’ve been too lazy to order one of those special urinalysis specimen cups with the cute plastic lid. And let’s face it: with my relatively frequent use of a three day gut testing panel, my wife is already somewhat accustomed to giant Fed-Ex bags full of poop tubes sitting in the fridge, so urine can’t be all that bad, right? Anyways, in this article, you’re going to learn exactly why I think it’s a good idea to occasionally study one’s own urine, and you’ll also discover 10 very interesting things your pee can tell you about your body. Enjoy, and as usual, leave your questions, thoughts, feedback, and stories of your own adventures in urinalysis below this post. ———————– The History Of My Interest In Urinalysis Two years ago, I first became interested in urinalysis when I discovered a new start-up called “uChek”. The premise of uChek was quite simple. People with diabetes who want to check the amount of glucose in their urine would simply be able to download uChek to their iPhone or iPad. Then, after a “mid-stream collection,” (yes, that’s exactly what it sounds like and, in my experience, despite my Private Gym training, can be quite difficult to Continue reading >>
Reactions Of Aminophosphines And Aminobis(phosphines) With Aldehydes And Ketones: Coordination Complexes Of The Resultant Aminobis(alkylphosphineoxides) With Cobalt, Uranium, Thorium And Gadolinium Salts
Abstract The reaction of aminophosphines and aminobis(phosphines) with aldehydes leads to either insertion of carbon fragments into the P(III)–N bonds or formation of α-hydroxyphosphine oxides through P(III)–N bond cleavage. Reaction of 1,2-C6H4{N(H)PPh2}2 with paraformaldehyde gives the P(III)–N bond inserted product 1,2-C6H4{N(H)CH2P(O)Ph2}2, whereas 1,3-C6H4{N(H)PPh2}2 forms an analogous product but with an additional methylene group inserted between the two nitrogen centers through nucleophilic addition to form a bicyclic derivative, 1,3-C6H4{Ph2P(O)CH2N(μ-CH2)NCH2P(O)Ph2}. Reactions of Ph2PN(H)Ph with aromatic aldehydes, RCHO (R = C6H4OH-o, 5-BrC6H3OH-o, (η5-C5H5)Fe(η5-C5H4–)) lead to the insertion of ‘RCH’ into the P(III)–N bond to give Ph2P(O)CH(R)N(H)Ph. The reactions of aminobis(phosphine), Ph2PN(nBu)PPh2 with both aromatic and aliphatic aldehydes lead to the formation of α-hydroxy phosphine oxide derivatives of the type Ph2P(O)CH(R)OH, through P(III)–N bond cleavage. The N-bridged bis(phosphine oxide) nPrN(CH2P(O)Ph2)2 readily forms chelate complexes with U(VI), Th(IV) and Gd(III) derivatives. Graphical abstract The reactions of aminophosphines and aminobis(phosphines) with aldehydes and ketones are described. Continue reading >>
