Hyperglycemic Crises: Diabetic Ketoacidosis (dka), And Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar State (hhs)
Go to: Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state (HHS) are acute metabolic complications of diabetes mellitus that can occur in patients with both type 1 and 2 diabetes mellitus. Timely diagnosis, comprehensive clinical and biochemical evaluation, and effective management is key to the successful resolution of DKA and HHS. Critical components of the hyperglycemic crises management include coordinating fluid resuscitation, insulin therapy, and electrolyte replacement along with the continuous patient monitoring using available laboratory tools to predict the resolution of the hyperglycemic crisis. Understanding and prompt awareness of potential of special situations such as DKA or HHS presentation in comatose state, possibility of mixed acid-base disorders obscuring the diagnosis of DKA, and risk of brain edema during the therapy are important to reduce the risks of complications without affecting recovery from hyperglycemic crisis. Identification of factors that precipitated DKA or HHS during the index hospitalization should help prevent subsequent episode of hyperglycemic crisis. For extensive review of all related areas of Endocrinology, visit WWW.ENDOTEXT.ORG. Go to: INTRODUCTION Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS) represent two extremes in the spectrum of decompensated diabetes. DKA and HHS remain important causes of morbidity and mortality among diabetic patients despite well developed diagnostic criteria and treatment protocols (1). The annual incidence of DKA from population-based studies is estimated to range from 4 to 8 episodes per 1,000 patient admissions with diabetes (2). The incidence of DKA continues to increase and it accounts for about 140,000 hospitalizations in the US in 2009 (Figure 1 a) (3). Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis And Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State In Adults: Clinical Features, Evaluation, And Diagnosis
INTRODUCTION Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS, also known as hyperosmotic hyperglycemic nonketotic state [HHNK]) are two of the most serious acute complications of diabetes. DKA is characterized by ketoacidosis and hyperglycemia, while HHS usually has more severe hyperglycemia but no ketoacidosis (table 1). Each represents an extreme in the spectrum of hyperglycemia. The precipitating factors, clinical features, evaluation, and diagnosis of DKA and HHS in adults will be reviewed here. The epidemiology, pathogenesis, and treatment of these disorders are discussed separately. DKA in children is also reviewed separately. (See "Diabetic ketoacidosis and hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state in adults: Epidemiology and pathogenesis".) Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis And Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar Nonketotic Syndrome
Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar nonketotic syndrome (HHNS) are life-threatening acute metabolic complications of diabetes mellitus. Although there are some important differences, the pathophysiology, the presenting clinical challenge, and the treatment of these metabolic derangements are similar. Each of these complications can be seen in type 1 or type 2 diabetes, although DKA is usually seen in patients with type 1 diabetes and HHNS in patients with type 2 disease. The clinical management of these syndromes involves careful evaluation and correction of the metabolic and volume status of the patient, identification and treatment of precipitating and comorbid conditions, a smooth transition to a long-term treatment regimen, and a plan to prevent recurrence. Do you want to read the rest of this article? ... pathophysiological mechanisms are best described in DKA, in which acute insulin deficiency results in an increase in free fatty acid production. This leads to excess ketone body production, reduced urinary clearance, and resultant metabolic acidosis.[4]HHS is characterized by marked hyperglycemia and hyperosmolarity, the combination of which leads to osmotic diuresis, volume depletion, hyperviscosity and ultimately, tissue hypoperfusion and worsening insulin resistance.[5]Cocaine has previously been described as contributing to worsening hyperglycemia through a combination of direct increase in counter-regulatory hormones and indirect promotion of insulin omission.[6][7][8]Prior clinical studies of the relationship between cocaine and hyperglycemic crisis have reported a possible association between patient self-reported and laboratory confirmed cocaine use and subsequent development of DKA. ... Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis And Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar Nonketotic Syndrome
Volume 29, Issue 4 , 1 December 2000, Pages 683-705 DIABETIC KETOACIDOSIS AND HYPERGLYCEMIC HYPEROSMOLAR NONKETOTIC SYNDROME Author links open overlay panel Miriam F.DelaneyMB, BCha ArielZismanMDa William M.KettyleMDb Get rights and content Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar nonketotic syndrome (HHNS) are life-threatening acute metabolic complications of diabetes mellitus. Although there are some important differences, the pathophysiology, the presenting clinical challenge, and the treatment of these metabolic derangements are similar. Insulin deficiency, either relative or absolute, and elevated levels of stress-responding, counterregulatory hormones (e.g., glucagon, catecholamines, growth hormone, and cortisol) are the hallmarks of these conditions. Each of these complications can be seen in type 1 and type 2 diabetes, although DKA is usually seen in patients with type 1 diabetes and HHNS in patients with type 2 disease. The clinical management of these syndromes involves careful evaluation and correction of the metabolic and volume status of the patient, identification and treatment of precipitating and comorbid conditions, a smooth transition to a long-term treatment regimen, and a plan to prevent recurrence. Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis And Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State In Adults: Treatment
INTRODUCTION Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS, also known as hyperosmotic hyperglycemic nonketotic state [HHNK]) are two of the most serious acute complications of diabetes. They are part of the spectrum of hyperglycemia, and each represents an extreme in the spectrum. The treatment of DKA and HHS in adults will be reviewed here. The epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical features, evaluation, and diagnosis of these disorders are discussed separately. DKA in children is also reviewed separately. (See "Diabetic ketoacidosis and hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state in adults: Epidemiology and pathogenesis".) (See "Diabetic ketoacidosis and hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state in adults: Clinical features, evaluation, and diagnosis".) Continue reading >>
Hyperglycemia Hyperosmolar Nonketotic Syndrome Vs. Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Sort What is a main symptom for DKA? Abdonminal pain, often first sign that a child has type I DM. Other symptoms include weight loss dry skin sunken eyes soft eyeballs lethargy coma Intervention for HHNS and DKA -restore circulating blood volume and protect against cerebral, coronary, and renal hypoperfusion -Treat dehydration with rapid IV infusion (NS until blood glucose level reaches 250 then switch to 1/2NS) -correct electrolyte imbalances -monitor potassium level closely due to the treatment of dehydration -IV insulin (regular only) -monitor vitals -monitor urinary output for signs of fluid overload -monitor potassium and glucose levels for signs of increased intracranial pressure -potassium level will fall rapidly withing the first hour of treatment -for HHNS insulin does not play as big of a role Continue reading >>
Treatment Of Diabetic Ketoacidosis (dka)/hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar State (hhs): Novel Advances In The Management Of Hyperglycemic Crises (uk Versus Usa)
Go to: Diabetic Ketoacidosis Prior to the discovery and isolation of insulin in 1922 by Banting and Best, type 1 diabetes was universally fatal within a few months of initial diagnosis. Once mass production was started, the challenge to those early pioneers of insulin treatment was learning how to use this new wonder drug, e.g., how much to give and how often to give it, in order to treat the hyperglycemia without raising the inherent risk of hypoglycemia. In 1945, Howard Root in Boston described how they had improved the outcomes for people with diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), reducing mortality to 12% by 1940 and to 1.6% by 1945 using high doses of insulin—giving an average of 83 units within the first 3 h of treatment in 1940 and 216 units by 1945 [3]. They described how in 1945, they used an average of 287 units in the first 24 h, but this ranged from 50 to 1770 units [3]. In Birmingham, UK, high-dose insulin was also being used with similar success—doses varying depending on the degree of consciousness, with those unarousable on admission given doses between 500 and 1400 units per 24 h [4]. DKA remains a medical emergency; over time, mortality has continued to fall but remains a significant risk, especially amongst the young, socially isolated and when care provision is fragmented [5•, 6•]. Overall, the diagnosis and treatment of DKA are very similar in the UK and USA with a few differences. The UK has separate guidelines on the management of DKA [7], while the USA has a position statement on DKA and HHS that was updated in 2009 [8]. The UK guideline differs in several ways from the US position statement. The concept of low-dose intravenous insulin was established in the late 1960s and early 1970s by teams on both sides of the Atlantic. The UK championed the u Continue reading >>
Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State (hhs)
By Erika F. Brutsaert, MD, Assistant Professor, Albert Einstein College of Medicine; Attending Physician, Montefiore Medical Center Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state is a metabolic complication of diabetes mellitus (DM) characterized by severe hyperglycemia, extreme dehydration, hyperosmolar plasma, and altered consciousness. It most often occurs in type 2 DM, often in the setting of physiologic stress. HHS is diagnosed by severe hyperglycemia and plasma hyperosmolality and absence of significant ketosis. Treatment is IV saline solution and insulin. Complications include coma, seizures, and death. Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHSpreviously referred to as hyperglycemic hyperosmolar nonketotic coma [HHNK] and nonketotic hyperosmolar syndrome) is a complication of type 2 diabetes mellitus and has an estimated mortality rate of up to20%, which is significantly higher than the mortality for diabetic ketoacidosis (currently < 1%). It usually develops after a period of symptomatic hyperglycemia in which fluid intake is inadequate to prevent extreme dehydration due to the hyperglycemia-induced osmotic diuresis. Acute infections and other medical conditions Drugs that impair glucose tolerance (glucocorticoids) or increase fluid loss (diuretics) Serum ketones are not present because the amounts of insulin present in most patients with type 2 DM are adequate to suppress ketogenesis. Because symptoms of acidosis are not present, most patients endure a significantly longer period of osmotic dehydration before presentation, and thus plasma glucose (> 600 mg/dL [> 33.3 mmol/L]) and osmolality (> 320 mOsm/L) are typically much higher than in diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA). The primary symptom of HHS is altered consciousness varying from confusion or disorientation to coma, usually as Continue reading >>
Acute Complications Of Diabetes - Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic Nonketotic State
- [Voiceover] Diabetes mellitus and its associated complications are the 8th leading cause of death worldwide. Now normally we think of both type 1 and type 2 diabetes as being more chronic conditions that result in complications such as kidney disease and cardiovascular disease over years to decades. And this is true, but there are also a couple of very important acute complications of diabetes mellitus. And these are known as diabetic ketoacidosis, or DKA for short, and hyperosmolar hyperglycemic non-ketotic state, or HHNS for short. And unfortunately these acute complications can be very serious, especially HHNS, which has a mortality rate of eight to 20%. In this video, let's discuss hyperosmolar hyperglycemic non-ketotic state. Now the name hyperosmolar hyperglycemic non-ketotic state is pretty descriptive in regards to the metabolism that underlies the disease. However, it does not really describe the clinical presentation of the condition. So let's start with that. And most commonly, someone with HHNS has already been diagnosed with diabetes, and this occurs sometime after their initial diagnosis. And since they have diabetes, they likely will have hyperglycemia, which is one of the defining characteristics of diabetes mellitus. And as we'll discuss in just a minute, it's this hyperglycemia that's driving a lot of the events that are occurring in HHNS. Now over a period of days to weeks, someone with HHNS is gonna become pretty sick, and they're gonna have symptoms of fatigue, maybe some weight loss. They're gonna have extreme thirst and frequent urination. On physical exam they'll have signs of dehydration, such as a high heart rate, known as tachycardia, a low blood pressure known as hypotension, the mucus membranes in their mouth may be dry, and their skin may Continue reading >>
Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State
Author: Dipa Avichal, DO; Chief Editor: George T Griffing, MD more... Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS) isone of two serious metabolic derangements that occurs in patients with diabetes mellitus (DM). [ 1 ] It is alife-threatening emergency that, although less common than its counterpart, diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), has a much higher mortality rate, reaching up to 5-10%. (See Epidemiology.) HHS was previously termed hyperosmolar hyperglycemic nonketotic coma (HHNC); however, the terminology was changed because coma is found in fewer than 20% of patients with HHS. [ 2 ] HHS is most commonly seen in patients with type 2DM who have some concomitant illness that leads to reduced fluid intake, as seen, for example, in elderly institutionalizedpersons with decreased thirst perception andreduced ability to drink water. [ 3 ] Infection is the most common preceding illness, but many other conditions, such as stroke or myocardial infarction, can cause this state. [ 3 ] Once HHS has developed, it may be difficult to identify or differentiate it from the antecedent illness. (See Etiology.) HHS is characterized by hyperglycemia, hyperosmolarity, and dehydration without significant ketoacidosis. Most patients present with severe dehydration and focal or global neurologic deficits. [ 2 , 4 , 5 ] The clinical features of HHS and DKA overlap and are observed simultaneously (overlap cases) in up toone thirdof cases. According to the consensus statement published by the American Diabetes Association, diagnostic features of HHS may include the following (see Workup) [ 4 , 6 ] : Plasma glucose level of 600 mg/dL or greater Effective serum osmolality of 320 mOsm/kg or greater Profound dehydration, up to an average of 9L Bicarbonate concentration greater than 15 mEq/L Small ketonuria a Continue reading >>
Difference Between Dka And Hhs
DKA vs HHS “DKA” means “diabetic ketoacidosis” and “HHS” means “Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic Syndrome.” Both DKA and HHS are the two complications of diabetes mellitus. Though there are many differences between DKA and HHS, the basic problem is associated with insulin deficiency. When comparing the two, HHS has a higher mortality rate. When DKA has a mortality rate of 2 to 5 per cent, HHS has a 15 per cent mortality rate. Diabetic ketoacidosis is seen mainly in type 1 diabetic patients but is also seen in some type 2 diabetic patients. Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic Syndrome is mainly seen in older patients having type 2 diabetes. DKA is mainly characterized by hyperglycemia, acidosis-producing derangements, and dehydration. Infection, disruption of insulin, and onset of diabetes are some of the common causes of DKA. Hyperglycemia, dehydration and hyperosmolarity are some of the common characteristics of Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic Syndrome. But HHS does not have ketoacidosis. Some of the early symptoms of diabetic ketoacidosis include increased thirst and increased urination. Other symptoms include malaise, weakness, and fatigue. Bacterial infection, illness, insulin deficiency, stress, and insulin infusion catheter blockage are some of the causes that lead to DKA. When compared to diabetic ketoacidosis, the Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic Syndrome develops only over the course of a week. Diabetic ketoacidosis develops rapidly. Increased dehydration, acute illness, vomiting, dementia, pneumonia, immobility, and urinary tract infections are some of the common causes of Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic Syndrome. One of the main goals of treatment of DKA involves correcting high blood glucose levels by injecting insulin as well as replacing fluid lost because of vomiting an Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis And Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar Syndrome
In Brief Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperosmolar hyperglycemic syndrome (HHS) are two acute complications of diabetes that can result in increased morbidity and mortality if not efficiently and effectively treated. Mortality rates are 2–5% for DKA and 15% for HHS, and mortality is usually a consequence of the underlying precipitating cause(s) rather than a result of the metabolic changes of hyperglycemia. Effective standardized treatment protocols, as well as prompt identification and treatment of the precipitating cause, are important factors affecting outcome. The two most common life-threatening complications of diabetes mellitus include diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar syndrome (HHS). Although there are important differences in their pathogenesis, the basic underlying mechanism for both disorders is a reduction in the net effective concentration of circulating insulin coupled with a concomitant elevation of counterregulatory hormones (glucagon, catecholamines, cortisol, and growth hormone). These hyperglycemic emergencies continue to be important causes of morbidity and mortality among patients with diabetes. DKA is reported to be responsible for more than 100,000 hospital admissions per year in the United States1 and accounts for 4–9% of all hospital discharge summaries among patients with diabetes.1 The incidence of HHS is lower than DKA and accounts for <1% of all primary diabetic admissions.1 Most patients with DKA have type 1 diabetes; however, patients with type 2 diabetes are also at risk during the catabolic stress of acute illness.2 Contrary to popular belief, DKA is more common in adults than in children.1 In community-based studies, more than 40% of African-American patients with DKA were >40 years of age and more than 2 Continue reading >>
Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State
GREGG D. STONER, MD, University of Illinois College of Medicine, Peoria, Illinois Am Fam Physician.2017Dec1;96(11):729-736. Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state is a life-threatening emergency manifested by marked elevation of blood glucose and hyperosmolarity with little or no ketosis. Although there are multiple precipitating causes, underlying infections are the most common. Other causes include certain medications, nonadherence to therapy, undiagnosed diabetes mellitus, substance abuse, and coexisting disease. In children and adolescents, hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state is often present when type 2 diabetes is diagnosed. Physical findings include profound dehydration and neurologic symptoms ranging from lethargy to coma. Treatment begins with intensive monitoring of the patient and laboratory values, especially glucose, sodium, and potassium levels. Vigorous correction of dehydration is critical, requiring an average of 9 L of 0.9% saline over 48 hours in adults. After urine output is established, potassium replacement should begin. Once dehydration is partially corrected, adults should receive an initial bolus of 0.1 units of intravenous insulin per kg of body weight, followed by a continuous infusion of 0.1 units per kg per hour (or a continuous infusion of 0.14 units per kg per hour without an initial bolus) until the blood glucose level decreases below 300 mg per dL. In children and adolescents, dehydration should be corrected at a rate of no more than 3 mOsm per hour to avoid cerebral edema. Identification and treatment of underlying and precipitating causes are necessary. Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS) is a life-threatening endocrine emergency that most commonly affects adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus. 1 , 2 However, the incidence increased by 52.4% Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis And Hyperglycaemic Hyperosmolar State
The hallmark of diabetes is a raised plasma glucose resulting from an absolute or relative lack of insulin action. Untreated, this can lead to two distinct yet overlapping life-threatening emergencies. Near-complete lack of insulin will result in diabetic ketoacidosis, which is therefore more characteristic of type 1 diabetes, whereas partial insulin deficiency will suppress hepatic ketogenesis but not hepatic glucose output, resulting in hyperglycaemia and dehydration, and culminating in the hyperglycaemic hyperosmolar state. Hyperglycaemia is characteristic of diabetic ketoacidosis, particularly in the previously undiagnosed, but it is the acidosis and the associated electrolyte disorders that make this a life-threatening condition. Hyperglycaemia is the dominant feature of the hyperglycaemic hyperosmolar state, causing severe polyuria and fluid loss and leading to cellular dehydration. Progression from uncontrolled diabetes to a metabolic emergency may result from unrecognised diabetes, sometimes aggravated by glucose containing drinks, or metabolic stress due to infection or intercurrent illness and associated with increased levels of counter-regulatory hormones. Since diabetic ketoacidosis and the hyperglycaemic hyperosmolar state have a similar underlying pathophysiology the principles of treatment are similar (but not identical), and the conditions may be considered two extremes of a spectrum of disease, with individual patients often showing aspects of both. Pathogenesis of DKA and HHS Insulin is a powerful anabolic hormone which helps nutrients to enter the cells, where these nutrients can be used either as fuel or as building blocks for cell growth and expansion. The complementary action of insulin is to antagonise the breakdown of fuel stores. Thus, the relea Continue reading >>
Dka Vs Hhs (hhns) Nclex Review
Diabetic ketoacidosis vs hyperglycemic hyperosmolar nonketotic syndrome (HHNS or HHS): What are the differences between these two complications of diabetes mellitus? This NCLEX review will simplify the differences between DKA and HHNS and give you a video lecture that easily explains their differences. Many students get these two complications confused due to their similarities, but there are major differences between these two complications. After reviewing this NCLEX review, don’t forget to take the quiz on DKA vs HHNS. Lecture on DKA and HHS DKA vs HHNS Diabetic Ketoacidosis Affects mainly Type 1 diabetics Ketones and Acidosis present Hyperglycemia presents >300 mg/dL Variable osmolality Happens Suddenly Causes: no insulin present in the body or illness/infection Seen in young or undiagnosed diabetics Main problems are hyperglycemia, ketones, and acidosis (blood pH <7.35) Clinical signs/symptoms: Kussmaul breathing, fruity breath, abdominal pain Treatment is the same as in HHNS (fluids, electrolyte replacement, and insulin) Watch potassium levels closely when giving insulin and make sure the level is at least 3.3 before administrating. Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar Nonketotic Syndrome Affects mainly Type 2 diabetics No ketones or acidosis present EXTREME Hyperglycemia (remember heavy-duty hyperglycemia) >600 mg/dL sometimes four digits High Osmolality (more of an issue in HHNS than DKA) Happens Gradually Causes: mainly illness or infection and there is some insulin present which prevents the breakdown of ketones Seen in older adults due to illness or infection Main problems are dehydration & heavy-duty hyperglycemia and hyperosmolarity (because the glucose is so high it makes the blood very concentrated) More likely to have mental status changes due to severe dehydrat Continue reading >>
