Simple Method Of Acid Base Balance Interpretation
A FOUR STEP METHOD FOR INTERPRETATION OF ABGS Usefulness This method is simple, easy and can be used for the majority of ABGs. It only addresses acid-base balance and considers just 3 values. pH, PaCO2 HCO3- Step 1. Use pH to determine Acidosis or Alkalosis. ph < 7.35 7.35-7.45 > 7.45 Acidosis Normal or Compensated Alkalosis Step 2. Use PaCO2 to determine respiratory effect. PaCO2 < 35 35 -45 > 45 Tends toward alkalosis Causes high pH Neutralizes low pH Normal or Compensated Tends toward acidosis Causes low pH Neutralizes high pH Step 3. Assume metabolic cause when respiratory is ruled out. You'll be right most of the time if you remember this simple table: High pH Low pH Alkalosis Acidosis High PaCO2 Low PaCO2 High PaCO2 Low PaCO2 Metabolic Respiratory Respiratory Metabolic If PaCO2 is abnormal and pH is normal, it indicates compensation. pH > 7.4 would be a compensated alkalosis. pH < 7.4 would be a compensated acidosis. These steps will make more sense if we apply them to actual ABG values. Click here to interpret some ABG values using these steps. You may want to refer back to these steps (click on "linked" steps or use "BACK" button on your browser) or print out this page for reference. Step 4. Use HC03 to verify metabolic effect Normal HCO3- is 22-26 Please note: Remember, the first three steps apply to the majority of cases, but do not take into account: the possibility of complete compensation, but those cases are usually less serious, and instances of combined respiratory and metabolic imbalance, but those cases are pretty rare. "Combined" disturbance means HCO3- alters the pH in the same direction as the PaCO2. High PaCO2 and low HCO3- (acidosis) or Low PaCO2 and high HCO3- (alkalosis). Continue reading >>
Metabolic Acidosis | Pathway Medicine
Metabolic Acidosis is a pathophysiological category of acidosis that refers to any cause of decreased ECF pH not due to a ventilatory defect (i.e. Respiratory Acidosis). Although the primary metabolic disturbance can cause a significant decrease in blood pH, respiratory compensatory mechanisms can largely correct the pH over several hours. The fundamental primary disturbance in a metabolic acidosis is a decrease in the levels of ECF bicarbonate concentration ([HCO3-]). Decreased bicarbonate results in an misalignment of the Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation for the bicarbonate buffer which largely determines the pH of the extracellular fluid. Mathematically, the reduced ECF pH results from an increase in the ratio between the partial pressure of arterial carbon dioxide (PaCO2) relative to the ECF concentration of bicarbonate ([HCO3-]). More colloquially, metabolic acidoses are caused by a pathologic consumption of the weak base form of the bicarbonate buffer, that is bicarbonate (HCO3-), resulting in a decrease in ECF pH. Metabolic Acidoses can be compensated by the actions of the lungs which serve to realign the bicarbonate buffer Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation over a period of hours. As described in Respiratory Acid-Base Control , the lungs respond to acidosis by increasing alveolar ventilation , essentially a physiological hyperventilation, which in turn reduces the PaCO2. The decreased PaCO2 realigns the Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation for the bicarbonate buffer and thus largely corrects the ECF pH. Consequently, a respiratory-compensated metabolic acidosis is characterized by decreased levels of ECF bicarbonate (caused by the primary metabolic disturbance) as well as decreased levels of PaCO2 (caused by the respiratory compensation). More colloquially, the lungs compe Continue reading >>
Paediatric Acid-base Disorders: A Case-based Review Of Procedures And Pitfalls
Paediatric acid-base disorders: A case-based review of procedures and pitfalls J Bryan Carmody , MD and Victoria F Norwood , MD Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pediatric Nephrology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA Correspondence: Dr J Bryan Carmody, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pediatric Neprhology, University of Virginia, PO Box 800386, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903, USA. Telephone 434-924-2096, e-mail ude.ainigriv.ccm.liamcsh@d5cbj , moc.xobnur@ydomracbj Copyright 2013 Pulsus Group Inc. All rights reserved Acid-base disorders occur frequently in paediatric patients. Despite the perception that their analysis is complex and difficult, a straightforward set of rules is sufficient to interpret even the most complex disorders provided certain pitfalls are avoided. Using a case-based approach, the present article reviews the fundamental concepts of acid-base analysis and highlights common mistakes and oversights. Specific topics include the proper identification of the primary disorder; distinguishing compensatory changes from additional primary disorders; use of the albumin-corrected anion gap to generate a differential diagnosis for patients with metabolic acidosis; screening for mixed disorders with the delta-delta formula; recognizing the limits of compensation; use of the anion gap to identify hidden acidosis; and the importance of using information from the history and physical examination to identify the specific cause of a patients acid-base disturbance. Keywords: Acid-base equilibrium, Acid-base imbalances, Acidosis, Alkolosis, Blood Les troubles de lquilibre acido-basique sont frquents chez les patients dge pdiatrique. Mme si on les croit difficiles et complexes analyser, des rgles simples suffsent pour interprter mme les Continue reading >>
Uncompensated, Partially Compensated, Or Combined Abg Problems
Arterial Blood Gas (ABG) analysis requires in-depth expertise. If the results are not understood right, or are wrongly interpreted, it can result in wrong diagnosis and end up in an inappropriate management of the patient. ABG analysis is carried out when the patient is dealing with the following conditions: • Breathing problems • Lung diseases (asthma, cystic fibrosis, COPD) • Heart failure • Kidney failure ABG reports help in answering the following questions: 1. Is there acidosis or alkalosis? 2. If acidosis is present, whether it is in an uncompensated state, partially compensated state, or in fully compensated state? 3. Whether acidosis is respiratory or metabolic? ABG reports provide the following descriptions: PaCO2 (partial pressure of dissolved CO2 in the blood) and PaO2 (partial pressure of dissolved O2 in the blood) describe the efficiency of exchange of gas in the alveolar level into the blood. Any change in these levels causes changes in the pH. HCO3 (bicarbonate in the blood) maintains the pH of the blood within normal range by compensatory mechanisms, which is either by retaining or increasing HCO3 excretion by the kidney. When PaCO2 increases, HCO3 decreases to compensate the pH. The following table summarizes the changes: ABG can be interpreted using the following analysis points: Finding acidosis or alkalosis: • If pH is more it is acidosis, if pH is less it is alkalosis. Finding compensated, partially compensated, or uncompensated ABG problems: • When PaCO2 is high, but pH is normal instead of being acidic, and if HCO3 levels are also increased, then it means that the compensatory mechanism has retained more HCO3 to maintain the pH. • When PaCO2 and HCO3 values are high but pH is acidic, then it indicates partial compensation. It means t Continue reading >>
Response To Disturbances
The body tries to minimize pH changes and responds to acid-base disturbances with body buffers, compensatory responses by the lungs and kidney (to metabolic and respiratory disturbances, respectively) and by the kidney correcting metabolic disturbances. Body buffers: There are intracellular and extracellular buffers for primary respiratory and metabolic acid-base disturbances. Intracellular buffers include hemoglobin in erythrocytes and phosphates in all cells. Extracellular buffers are carbonate (HCO3–) and non-carbonate (e.g. protein, bone) buffers. These immediately buffer the rise or fall in H+. Compensation: This involves responses by the respiratory tract and kidney to primary metabolic and respiratory acid-base disturbances, respectively. Compensation opposes the primary disturbance, although the laboratory changes in the compensatory response parallel those in the primary response. This concept is illustrated in the summary below. Respiratory compensation for a primary metabolic disturbance: Alterations in alveolar ventilation occurs in response to primary metabolic acid-base disturbances. This begins within minutes to hours of an acute primary metabolic disturbance. Note that complete compensation via this mechanism may take up to 24 hours. Renal compensation for a primary respiratory disturbance: Here, the kidney alters excretion of acid (which influences bases as well) in response to primary respiratory disturbances. This begins within hours of an acute respiratory disturbance, but take several days (3-5 days) to take full effect. Correction of acid-base changes: Correction of a primary respiratory acid-base abnormality usually requires medical or surgical intervention of the primary problem causing the acid-base disturbance, e.g. surgical relief of a colla Continue reading >>
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Acid-base Disorders
Content currently under development Acid-base disorders are a group of conditions characterized by changes in the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) or bicarbonate (HCO3-), which lead to changes in the arterial blood pH. These conditions can be categorized as acidoses or alkaloses and have a respiratory or metabolic origin, depending on the cause of the imbalance. Diagnosis is made by arterial blood gas (ABG) interpretation. In the setting of metabolic acidosis, calculation of the anion gap is an important resource to narrow down the possible causes and reach a precise diagnosis. Treatment is based on identifying the underlying cause. Continue reading >>
Acid Base Disorders
Arterial blood gas analysis is used to determine the adequacy of oxygenation and ventilation, assess respiratory function and determine the acid–base balance. These data provide information regarding potential primary and compensatory processes that affect the body’s acid–base buffering system. Interpret the ABGs in a stepwise manner: Determine the adequacy of oxygenation (PaO2) Normal range: 80–100 mmHg (10.6–13.3 kPa) Determine pH status Normal pH range: 7.35–7.45 (H+ 35–45 nmol/L) pH <7.35: Acidosis is an abnormal process that increases the serum hydrogen ion concentration, lowers the pH and results in acidaemia. pH >7.45: Alkalosis is an abnormal process that decreases the hydrogen ion concentration and results in alkalaemia. Determine the respiratory component (PaCO2) Primary respiratory acidosis (hypoventilation) if pH <7.35 and HCO3– normal. Normal range: PaCO2 35–45 mmHg (4.7–6.0 kPa) PaCO2 >45 mmHg (> 6.0 kPa): Respiratory compensation for metabolic alkalosis if pH >7.45 and HCO3– (increased). PaCO2 <35 mmHg (4.7 kPa): Primary respiratory alkalosis (hyperventilation) if pH >7.45 and HCO3– normal. Respiratory compensation for metabolic acidosis if pH <7.35 and HCO3– (decreased). Determine the metabolic component (HCO3–) Normal HCO3– range 22–26 mmol/L HCO3 <22 mmol/L: Primary metabolic acidosis if pH <7.35. Renal compensation for respiratory alkalosis if pH >7.45. HCO3 >26 mmol/L: Primary metabolic alkalosis if pH >7.45. Renal compensation for respiratory acidosis if pH <7.35. Additional definitions Osmolar Gap Use: Screening test for detecting abnormal low MW solutes (e.g. ethanol, methanol & ethylene glycol [Reference]) An elevated osmolar gap (>10) provides indirect evidence for the presence of an abnormal solute which is prese Continue reading >>
Metabolic Acidosis - Endocrine And Metabolic Disorders - Merck Manuals Professional Edition
(Video) Overview of Acid-Base Maps and Compensatory Mechanisms By James L. Lewis, III, MD, Attending Physician, Brookwood Baptist Health and Saint Vincent’s Ascension Health, Birmingham Metabolic acidosis is primary reduction in bicarbonate (HCO3−), typically with compensatory reduction in carbon dioxide partial pressure (Pco2); pH may be markedly low or slightly subnormal. Metabolic acidoses are categorized as high or normal anion gap based on the presence or absence of unmeasured anions in serum. Causes include accumulation of ketones and lactic acid, renal failure, and drug or toxin ingestion (high anion gap) and GI or renal HCO3− loss (normal anion gap). Symptoms and signs in severe cases include nausea and vomiting, lethargy, and hyperpnea. Diagnosis is clinical and with ABG and serum electrolyte measurement. The cause is treated; IV sodium bicarbonate may be indicated when pH is very low. Metabolic acidosis is acid accumulation due to Increased acid production or acid ingestion Acidemia (arterial pH < 7.35) results when acid load overwhelms respiratory compensation. Causes are classified by their effect on the anion gap (see The Anion Gap and see Table: Causes of Metabolic Acidosis ). Lactic acidosis (due to physiologic processes) Lactic acidosis (due to exogenous toxins) Toluene (initially high gap; subsequent excretion of metabolites normalizes gap) HIV nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors Biguanides (rare except with acute kidney injury) Normal anion gap (hyperchloremic acidosis) Renal tubular acidosis, types 1, 2, and 4 The most common causes of a high anion gap metabolic acidosis are Ketoacidosis is a common complication of type 1 diabetes mellitus (see diabetic ketoacidosis ), but it also occurs with chronic alcoholism (see alcoholic ketoacidos Continue reading >>
Compensated Acidosis | Definition Of Compensated Acidosis By Medical Dictionary
Compensated acidosis | definition of compensated acidosis by Medical dictionary Also found in: Dictionary , Thesaurus , Encyclopedia . Related to compensated acidosis: acidotic 1. the accumulation of acid and hydrogen ions or depletion of the alkaline reserve (bicarbonate content) in the blood and body tissues, resulting in a decrease in pH. 2. a pathologic condition resulting from this process, characterized by increase in hydrogen ion concentration (decrease in pH). The optimal acid-base balance is maintained by chemical buffers, biologic activities of the cells, and effective functioning of the lungs and kidneys. The opposite of acidosis is alkalosis. adj., adj acidotic. Acidosis usually occurs secondary to some underlying disease process; the two major types, distinguished according to cause, are metabolic acidosis and respiratory acidosis (see accompanying table). In mild cases the symptoms may be overlooked; in severe cases symptoms are more obvious and may include muscle twitching, involuntary movement, cardiac arrhythmias, disorientation, and coma. In general, treatment consists of intravenous or oral administration of sodium bicarbonate or sodium lactate solutions and correction of the underlying cause of the imbalance. Many cases of severe acidosis can be prevented by careful monitoring of patients whose primary illness predisposes them to respiratory problems or metabolic derangements that can cause increased levels of acidity or decreased bicarbonate levels. Such care includes effective teaching of self-care to the diabetic so that the disease remains under control. Patients receiving intravenous therapy, especially those having a fluid deficit, and those with biliary or intestinal intubation should be watched closely for early signs of acidosis. Others pre Continue reading >>
Respiratory Compensation
Metabolic Acidosis Respiratory compensation for metabolic disorders is quite fast (within minutes) and reaches maximal values within 24 hours. A decrease in Pco2 of 1 to 1.5 mm Hg should be observed for each mEq/L decrease of in metabolic acidosis.27 A simple rule for deciding whether the fall in Pco2 is appropriate for the degree of metabolic acidosis is that the Pco2 should be equal to the last two digits of the pH. For example, compensation is adequate if the Pco2 decreases to 28 when the pH is 7.28. Alternatively, the Pco2 can be predicted by adding 15 to the observed (down to a value of 12). Although reduction in Pco2 plays an important role in correcting any metabolic acidosis, evidence suggests that it may in some respects be counterproductive because it inhibits renal acid excretion. Fetoplacental Elimination of Metabolic Acid Load Fetal respiratory and renal compensation in response to changes in fetal pH is limited by the level of maturity and the surrounding maternal environment. However, although the placentomaternal unit performs most compensatory functions,3 the fetal kidneys have some, although limited, ability to contribute to the maintenance of fetal acid–base balance. The most frequent cause of fetal metabolic acidosis is fetal hypoxemia owing to abnormalities of uteroplacental function or blood flow (or both). Primary maternal hypoxemia or maternal metabolic acidosis secondary to maternal diabetes mellitus, sepsis, or renal tubular abnormalities is an unusual cause of fetal metabolic acidosis. Pregnant women, at least in late gestation, maintain a somewhat more alkaline plasma environment compared with that of nonpregnant control participants. This pattern of acid–base regulation in pregnant women is present during both resting and after maximal e Continue reading >>
Abg: Respiratory Acidosis/metabolic Alkalosis
Home / ABA Keyword Categories / A / ABG: Respiratory acidosis/metabolic alkalosis ABG: Respiratory acidosis/metabolic alkalosis A combined respiratory acidosis / metabolic alkalosis will result in elevated PaCO2 and serum bicarbonate. Which process is the primary disorder (e.g. primary respiratory acidosis with metabolic compensation versus primary metabolic alkalosis with respiratory compensation) is dependent on the pH in an acidotic patient, the acidosis is primary (and the alkalosis is compensatory) and vice versa. Compensation behaves in accordance with the following rules: Metabolic Acidosis: As bicarbonate goes from 10 to 5, pCO2 will bottom out at 15. pCO2 = 1.5 x [HCO3-] + 8 (or pCO2 = 1.25 x [HCO3-]) Metabolic Alkalosis: compensation here is less because CO2 is driving force for respiration. pCO2 = 0.7 x [HCO3-] + 21 (or pCO2 = 0.75 x [HCO3-]) Acutely: [HCO3-] = 0.1 x pCO2 or pH = 0.008 x pCO2 Chronically: [HCO3-] = 0.4 x pCO2 or pH = 0.003 x pCO2 Respiratory Alkalosis: Metabolic compensation will automatically be retention of chloride (i.e., hyperchloremic, usually referred to as loss of bicarb although it is the strong ion difference that matters). If you have an anion gap, then youve automatically got a little bit of an acidosis on top of the compensation (because the compensation should be a NON-gap acidotic process. Acutely: [HCO3-] = 0.2 x pCO2 (or pH = 0.008 x pCO2) Chronically: [HCO3-] = 0.4 x pCO2 (or pH = 0.017 x pCO2) Continue reading >>
Metabolic Acidosis Treatment & Management
Approach Considerations Treatment of acute metabolic acidosis by alkali therapy is usually indicated to raise and maintain the plasma pH to greater than 7.20. In the following two circumstances this is particularly important. When the serum pH is below 7.20, a continued fall in the serum HCO3- level may result in a significant drop in pH. This is especially true when the PCO2 is close to the lower limit of compensation, which in an otherwise healthy young individual is approximately 15 mm Hg. With increasing age and other complicating illnesses, the limit of compensation is likely to be less. A further small drop in HCO3- at this point thus is not matched by a corresponding fall in PaCO2, and rapid decompensation can occur. For example, in a patient with metabolic acidosis with a serum HCO3- level of 9 mEq/L and a maximally compensated PCO2 of 20 mm Hg, a drop in the serum HCO3- level to 7 mEq/L results in a change in pH from 7.28 to 7.16. A second situation in which HCO3- correction should be considered is in well-compensated metabolic acidosis with impending respiratory failure. As metabolic acidosis continues in some patients, the increased ventilatory drive to lower the PaCO2 may not be sustainable because of respiratory muscle fatigue. In this situation, a PaCO2 that starts to rise may change the plasma pH dramatically even without a significant further fall in HCO3-. For example, in a patient with metabolic acidosis with a serum HCO3- level of 15 and a compensated PaCO2 of 27 mm Hg, a rise in PaCO2 to 37 mm Hg results in a change in pH from 7.33 to 7.20. A further rise of the PaCO2 to 43 mm Hg drops the pH to 7.14. All of this would have occurred while the serum HCO3- level remained at 15 mEq/L. In lactic acidosis and diabetic ketoacidosis, the organic anion can r Continue reading >>
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Intro To Arterial Blood Gases, Part 2
Arterial Blood Gas Analysis, Part 2 Introduction Acute vs. Chronic Respiratory Disturbances Primary Metabolic Disturbances Anion Gap Mixed Disorders Compensatory Mechanisms Steps in ABG Analysis, Part II Summary Compensatory Mechanisms Compensation refers to the body's natural mechanisms of counteracting a primary acid-base disorder in an attempt to maintain homeostasis. As you learned in Acute vs. Chronic Respiratory Disturbances, the kidneys can compensate for chronic respiratory disorders by either holding on to or dumping bicarbonate. With Chronic respiratory acidosis: Chronic respiratory alkalosis: the kidneys hold on to bicarbonate the kidneys dump bicarbonate With primary metabolic disturbances, the respiratory system compensates for the acid-base disorder. The lungs can either blow off excess acid (via CO2) to compensate for metabolic acidosis, or to a lesser extent, hold on to acid (via CO2) to compensate for metabolic alkalosis. With Metabolic acidosis: Metabolic alkalosis: ventilation increases to blow off CO2 ventilation decreases to hold on to CO2 The body's response to metabolic acidosis is predictable. With metabolic acidosis, respiration will increase to blow off CO2, thereby decreasing the amount of acid in the blood. Recall that with metabolic acidosis, central chemoreceptors are triggered by the low pH and increase the drive to breathe. For now, it is only important to learn (qualitatively) that there is a predictable compensatory response to metabolic acidosis. Later, during your 3rd or 4th year rotations, you might learn how to (quantitatively) determine if the compensatory response to metabolic acidosis is appropriate by using the Winter's Formula. The body's response to metabolic alkalosis is not as complete. This is because we would need to hypov Continue reading >>
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Metabolic Acidosis
Metabolic acidosis is a condition that occurs when the body produces excessive quantities of acid or when the kidneys are not removing enough acid from the body. If unchecked, metabolic acidosis leads to acidemia, i.e., blood pH is low (less than 7.35) due to increased production of hydrogen ions by the body or the inability of the body to form bicarbonate (HCO3−) in the kidney. Its causes are diverse, and its consequences can be serious, including coma and death. Together with respiratory acidosis, it is one of the two general causes of acidemia. Terminology : Acidosis refers to a process that causes a low pH in blood and tissues. Acidemia refers specifically to a low pH in the blood. In most cases, acidosis occurs first for reasons explained below. Free hydrogen ions then diffuse into the blood, lowering the pH. Arterial blood gas analysis detects acidemia (pH lower than 7.35). When acidemia is present, acidosis is presumed. Signs and symptoms[edit] Symptoms are not specific, and diagnosis can be difficult unless the patient presents with clear indications for arterial blood gas sampling. Symptoms may include chest pain, palpitations, headache, altered mental status such as severe anxiety due to hypoxia, decreased visual acuity, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, altered appetite and weight gain, muscle weakness, bone pain, and joint pain. Those in metabolic acidosis may exhibit deep, rapid breathing called Kussmaul respirations which is classically associated with diabetic ketoacidosis. Rapid deep breaths increase the amount of carbon dioxide exhaled, thus lowering the serum carbon dioxide levels, resulting in some degree of compensation. Overcompensation via respiratory alkalosis to form an alkalemia does not occur. Extreme acidemia leads to neurological and cardia Continue reading >>
Metabolic Acidosis
Patient professional reference Professional Reference articles are written by UK doctors and are based on research evidence, UK and European Guidelines. They are designed for health professionals to use. You may find one of our health articles more useful. See also separate Lactic Acidosis and Arterial Blood Gases - Indications and Interpretations articles. Description Metabolic acidosis is defined as an arterial blood pH <7.35 with plasma bicarbonate <22 mmol/L. Respiratory compensation occurs normally immediately, unless there is respiratory pathology. Pure metabolic acidosis is a term used to describe when there is not another primary acid-base derangement - ie there is not a mixed acid-base disorder. Compensation may be partial (very early in time course, limited by other acid-base derangements, or the acidosis exceeds the maximum compensation possible) or full. The Winter formula can be helpful here - the formula allows calculation of the expected compensating pCO2: If the measured pCO2 is >expected pCO2 then additional respiratory acidosis may also be present. It is important to remember that metabolic acidosis is not a diagnosis; rather, it is a metabolic derangement that indicates underlying disease(s) as a cause. Determination of the underlying cause is the key to correcting the acidosis and administering appropriate therapy[1]. Epidemiology It is relatively common, particularly among acutely unwell/critical care patients. There are no reliable figures for its overall incidence or prevalence in the population at large. Causes of metabolic acidosis There are many causes. They can be classified according to their pathophysiological origin, as below. The table is not exhaustive but lists those that are most common or clinically important to detect. Increased acid Continue reading >>
