Best Case Ever 58 Euglycemic Dka
This is EM Cases Best Case Ever 58 – Euglycemic DKA with Walter Himmel, the walking encyclopedia of emergency medicine. It’s not only run of the mill DKA, starvation and alcoholic ketoacidosis that can cause a metabolic acidosis with elevated ketones. Euglycemic DKA can be caused by the newer diabetes medications sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitors like Canagliflozin; and it’s important to recognize this tricky diagnosis early and initiate treatment for DKA despite a normal serum glucose level, because DKA can lead to serious complications like renal failure, cerebral edema, ARDS, shock, and death. Podcast production, sound design and editing by Anton Helman; Written by Anton Helman, June 2017 Euglycemic DKA can occur in any diabetic and has been reported in the literature since the 1970’s, but there has recently been a rise in incidence of euglycemic DKA associated with sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT-2 inhibitors, or the “zins”) such as Canagliflozin, Dapagliflozin and Empagliflozin. When to suspect euglycemic DKA Any patient with Type 1 or 2 diabetes taking SGLT-2 inhibitors who presents with nausea, vomiting, SOB or malaise or is found to have a metabolic acidosis should have blood drawn for serum ketones. Triggers of euglycemic DKA are similar to the triggers for any DKA: Alcohol use, infection and reduced oral intake. Distinguishing euglycemic DKA from alcoholic DKA Alcoholic ketoacidosis may also present with nausea, vomiting, malaise, ketones and anion gap metabolic acidosis. The key differentiating factor besides the obvious history of heavy alcohol use vs a diabetic taking an SGLT-2 inhibitor, is that patients with alcoholic ketoacidosis tend to have frankly low glucose. How is treatment of euglycemic DKA different? In addit Continue reading >>
Euglycemic Dka From Sglt2 Inhibitors: Don't Worry, I Can't Pronounce Them Either
Diabetic ketoacidosis in patients with presenting serum blood glucose less than 200 is not common. Particularly when practicing in the Bible/Diabetes belt of the United States. This euglycemic DKA (euDKA) is more often associated in patients with type 1 diabetes in conjunction with starvation and acute illness.[1] It's difficult to determine an incidence of euglycemic serum glucose among all DKA cases in the literature given the migration of the serum glucose cutoff from 300 or less to 200 or less. The best estimation based on an analysis of case reports suggests an incidence anywhere from 0.8% to 7.5%.[1] However, the newest class of unpronounceable medications, the sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2inh) (canagliflozin, dapagliflozin, empagliflozin) are making their presence known by inducing this once rare form of DKA.[2-3] SGLT2inhs are a class of oral hypoglycemic drugs indicated only for type 2 diabetes. Their novel mechanism of action prevents glucose reabsorption from the proximal renal tubules resulting in increased glucosuria and decreasing plasma glucose. The resulting effects include lower serum glucose levels, lower HBA1C, and even weight loss. But that's not all. The increased glucose concentration in the bladder is a terrific incubation environment for fungi and bacteria. So much so that the FDA has slapped a post-marketing warning on the drug class for the increased risk of UTI and urosepsis. In other patients, euglycemic DKA may occur. This too has led to the FDA issuing a similar warning of this possible life threat. The proposed mechanism suggests that SGLT2inhs while lowering serum glucose, also reduces insulin secretion from pancreatic beta cells in a negative feedback fashion. The lower serum insulin coupled with lower serum glucose c Continue reading >>
Euglycemic Diabetic Ketoacidosis With Acute Pancreatitis In A Patient Not Known To Have Diabetes
Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is usually easily recognized and is characterized by hyperglycemia, metabolic acidosis, and increased ketones (1). Euglycemic DKA, a relatively uncommon presentation, is a less known entity and can go unrecognized at initial presentation. It can be caused by starvation of any cause in conjunction with a current illness (2) and has been described mainly in patients with type 1 diabetes (3,4) but also in subjects with type 2 and gestational diabetes (3,5). We report a case of euglycemic DKA precipitated by starvation and severe pancreatitis in a patient with history of chronic alcoholism and no known underlying diabetes. This case shows the complex interplay among severe alcohol-related pancreatic injury, ketoacidosis, and starvation physiology. It highlights the fact that euglycemic DKA should be considered in the differential diagnosis of an ill patient presenting with metabolic acidosis, even in the absence of hyperglycemia. A 36-year-old female presented to the emergency room with severe epigastric pain with radiation to her back of 3 days duration and a 1-week history of nausea and vomiting. She reported having not eaten for over 1 week and admitted to drinking 1 L of brandy daily for years; her last drink was 3 days prior to admission. She denied taking any medications. Her medical records review revealed a history of hematemesis from a Mallory-Weiss tear and rehabilitation for alcoholism in 2007 and 2008 with subsequent relapses. Her family history was significant for coronary artery disease, diabetes, and hypertension, and her mother also struggled with alcoholism. Physical examination revealed a temperature of 36.6°C, blood pressure 123/71 mm Hg, respiratory rate 24 per minute, heart rate 80 per minute, oxygen saturation 100% on room Continue reading >>
Euglycemic Dka: It’s Not A Myth
Background: Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is traditionally defined as a triad of hyperglycemia (>250mg/dL), anion gap acidosis, and increased plasma ketones. There is another entity that providers must be aware of known as euglycemic DKA (euDKA), which is essentially DKA without the hyperglycemia (Serum glucose <200 mg/dL). Euglycemic DKA is a rare entity that mostly occurs in patients with type 1 diabetes, but can possibly occur in type 2 diabetes as well. The exact mechanism of euDKA is not entirely known, but has been associated with partial treatment of diabetes, carbohydrate food restriction, alcohol intake, and inhibition of gluconeogenesis. euDKA, can also be associated with sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT-2) inhibitor medications. These medications first came onto the market in 2013 and are FDA approved for the treatment of type 2 diabetes, however many physicians use them off-label for type I diabetes due to their ability to improve average glucose levels, reduce glycemic variability without increasing hypoglycemia, and finally promote weight loss. Does euDKA Exist even in Patients not Using SGLT-2 Inhibitors? The short answer is YES. Munro JF et al [5] reviewed a case series of 37 episodes of euDKA in a publication from 1973. Although, dated and not robust evidence some take home messages can be derived: All but one episode was in insulin dependent diabetics Vomiting was the most frequent symptom of euDKA in 32% of patients Management in most cases consisted of: Intravenous fluids and electrolyte replacement. No deaths occurred in this case series What are the Names of the SGLT-2 Inhibitors? Ipragliflozin (Suglat) – Approved in Japan Dapagliflozin (Farxiga) – 1st SGLT2 Inhibitor Approved; Approved in US Luseogliflozin (Lusefi) – Approved in Japan Tofo Continue reading >>
A Can't Miss Ed Diagnosis: Euglycemic Dka
The FDA has approved these three SGLT2 inhibitors for Type 2 diabetics, and at times, they are prescribed off-label for Type 1. The mechanism involves decreasingglucose reabsorption in the nephrons proximal tubule (via inhibition of the sodium-glucose linked cotransporter-2 protein). This results in increased urinary excretion of glucose that is independent of the bodys insulin secretion.1 Other potential benefits of this class of medications include:13 In 2015 the FDA issued a warning, however, that SGLT2 inhibitors may cause ketoacidosis, urinary tract infections, and urosepsis.4 Since then, multiple case reports have been published showing an association between SGLT2 inhibitors and the development of euglycemic DKA. Euglycemic DKA is an uncommon and likely under-diagnosed phenomenon, best defined as DKA with alower than expected blood glucose (less than 250 mg/dL according to the American Diabetes Association).46 Potential precipitants, in addition to SGLT2 inhibitors, include:7 EPs may delay diagnosis, given the modest glucose levels at the time of presentation. This, however, is false reassurance because DKA is not defined by an absolute blood glucose. Interestingly, patients with euglycemic DKA may have a normal mental status despite marked ketoacidosis, and vomiting seems to be a common complaint.5 Euglycemic DKA treatment is the same as traditional DKA, and includes hydration, insulin, and supportive care. Patients with euglycemic DKA may also need a dextrose infusion given the lower glucose levels. SGLT2 Inhibitors and Euglycemic DKA: Mechanism The mechanisms by which SGLT2 inhibitors cause or predispose to euglycemic DKA are unclear and likely complex. SGLT2 inhibitors may lead to a decrease in either endogenous or exogenous insulin, and an increase in gluca Continue reading >>
Euglycemic Diabetic Ketoacidosis: A Review
Euglycemic Diabetic Ketoacidosis: A Review Author(s): Anar Modi , Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism, Cooper University Hospital, Camden, New Jersey, United States Abhinav Agrawal* , Department of Medicine, Monmouth Medical Center, 300 Second Avenue, Long Branch, New Jersey, United States Farah Morgan . Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism, Cooper University Hospital, Camden, New Jersey, United States Introduction: Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is one of the most serious complications of diabetes.It is characterised by the triad of hyperglycemia (blood sugar >250 mg/dl), metabolic acidosis(arterial pH <7.3 and serum bicarbonate <18 mEq/L) and ketosis. Rarely these patients can present withblood glucose (BG) levels of less than 200 mg/dl, which is defined as euglycemic DKA. The possibleetiology of euglycemic DKA includes the recent use of insulin, decreased caloric intake, heavy alcoholconsumption, chronic liver disease and glycogen storage disorders. DKA in pregnancy has also beenreported to present with euglycemia. The recent use of sodium glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitorshas shed light on another possible mechanism of euglycemic DKA. Clinicians may also be misledby the presence of pseudonormoglycemia. Conclusion: Euglycemic DKA thus poses a challenge to physicians, as patients presenting with normalBG levels in ketoacidosis may be overlooked, leading to a delay in appropriate management strategies.In this article, we review all the possible etiologies and the associated pathophysiology of patients presentingwith euglycemic DKA. We also discuss the approach to diagnosis and management of suchpatients. Despite euglycemia, ketoacidosis in diabetic patients remains a medical emergency and mustbe treated in a quick and appropriate mann Continue reading >>
Euglycemic Diabetic Ketoacidosis Sometimes Seen With Sglt2 Inhibitors
Craig Cocchio, PharmD, BCPS, is an Emergency Medicine Clinical Pharmacist at Trinity Mother Frances Hospital in Tyler, Texas. Follow on Twitter @iEMPharmD and on his blog at empharmd.blogspot.com Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) in patients with presenting serum blood glucose <200 mg/dL isn’t common. More often, it’s seen in patients with type 1 diabetes in conjunction with starvation and acute illness.1 It’s difficult to determine an incidence of euglycemic DKA (euDKA) among all DKA cases in the literature, given the migration of the serum glucose cutoff from ≤300 mg/dL to ≤200 mg/dL. The best estimation based on an analysis of case reports suggests an incidence anywhere between 0.8% and 7.5%.1 However, the sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors canagliflozin, dapagliflozin, and empagliflozin can apparently induce this once-rare form of DKA.2,3 SGLT2 inhibitors are a class of oral hypoglycemic drugs indicated only for type 2 diabetes. Their novel mechanism of action prevents glucose reabsorption from the proximal renal tubules, resulting in increased glucosuria and decreasing plasma glucose. SGLT2 inhibitors lower serum glucose and HBA1C levels, and even produce weight loss. However, the increased glucose concentration in the bladder is a terrific incubation environment for fungi and bacteria, so much so that the FDA stuck a post-marketing warning on the drug class for the increased risk of serious urinary tract infections and urosepsis, in addition to euglycemic DKA. The proposed mechanism suggests that while SGLT2 inhibitors lower serum glucose, they also reduce insulin secretion from pancreatic beta cells in a negative feedback fashion. The lower serum insulin coupled with lower serum glucose consequently shifts energy metabolism to antilipolytic act Continue reading >>
Euglycemic Dka Secondary To Sglt2 Inhibitors
Authors: Priyanka Kailash (MS-4, Campbell University School of Osteopathic Medicine), Kevin Weaver, DO (Program Director, Lehigh Valley Health Network), and Krystle Shafer, MD (Attending Physician, York Hospital) // Edited by: Alex Koyfman, MD (@EMHighAK, EM Attending Physician, UT Southwestern Medical Center / Parkland Memorial Hospital) and Brit Long, MD (@long_brit) A 35-year-old male with a past medical history of type 2 diabetes arrives at the Emergency Department (ED) with altered mental status, nausea, vomiting, and diffuse abdominal pain that started 10 hours ago. The patient was recently started on an SGLT2 inhibitor. On examination, the patient is tachycardic (HR 126) and tachypneic (RR 25), with normal blood pressure (110/90). He is further noted to have dry mucous membranes and poor skin turgor. Blood glucose is noted to be 140 mg/dl, serum ketones 6.2 mmol/L, and arterial pH of 6.9. The patient is diagnosed with euglycemic DKA and quickly admitted to ICU for treatment. Pathogenesis of Typical DKA Two major complications from type 1 diabetes mellitus and type 2 diabetes mellitus are diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS). DKA is typically seen in younger individuals, while HHS is typically seen in older patients(1). In the pathogenesis of typical DKA, the body experiences a starved state. Insulin deficiency (either through decreased production or decrease sensitivity) leads to the inactivation of GLUT4 receptors on cells. GLUT4 receptors function to help transport glucose molecules into cells so that it can be converted into energy. Without GLUT4 receptor activation, the glucose entry into cells remains shut. Thus, the cells start to experience a starved state. To compensate, the body activates an alternative energy pathway Continue reading >>
Prolonged Ketosis In A Patient With Euglycemic Diabetic Ketoacidosis Secondary To Dapagliflozin
Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2) are the newest class of oral agents to receive US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval for the treatment of type 2 diabetes (T2DM). SGLT2 inhibitors currently approved by the FDA include canagliflozin, dapagliflozin, and empagliflozin as well as various combination drugs (Table 1). The enthusiasm this class of drugs has been greeted with stems from the benefits associated with SGLT2 inhibitors. They include decrease in A1c by 0.5% to 1%, reduction in insulin doses, modest weight loss, and improved systolic and diastolic blood pressure.1 In addition, the EMPA-REG OUTCOME trial showed a reduction in all-cause and cardiovascular mortality with empagliflozin.2 Also, a post hoc analysis of a study on dapagliflozin in type 2 diabetics with moderate renal impairment showed improved albuminuria and delayed progression to severe renal failure.3 The popularity of SGLT2 inhibitors is understandable considering the paucity of oral diabetic drugs that promote both weight loss and reduction of insulin needs. Endocrinologists and internists alike have increasingly prescribed this class of drugs as to avoid initiation of insulin or escalation of insulin doses. With more patients using SGLT2 inhibitors, reports of euglycemic diabetic ketoacidosis (euDKA) have emerged. While DKA can be expected with off-label use of SGLT2 inhibitors in patients with T1DM, it has also occurred in T2DM patients. Thus, the FDA posted a drug safety communication on DKA in 2015.4 Greater understanding of how to safely use this newest tool in our arsenal against diabetes is essential. A 50-year-old African American female with T2DM since the age of 35 presented with 10 days of constipation and fatigue, as well as reduced oral intake for 3 days prior to a Continue reading >>
Euglycemic Diabetic Ketoacidosis: The Clinical Concern Of Sglt2 Inhibitors
Euglycemic diabetic ketoacidosis is a post market warning in patients with type 1 diabetes and type 2 diabetes treated with SGLT-2 inhibitors. We report a case of a 39-year-old obese female with presumed type 2 diabetes for seven years who presented to the emergency department with three days of nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. Due to previous total non-adherence with a prescribed insulin regimen, she was recently started on canagliflozin and liraglutide. The diagnosis of euDKA was missed in the initial evaluation as the blood glucose level was only 167 mg/dL. Further work up showed severe metabolic acidosis with an anion gap of 25 and positive ketones in the urine. She was treated successfully with dextrose water 5%/half normal saline and an insulin drip. As part of the work up, she tested positive for glutamic acid decarboxylase autoantibodies. Given the increasing utilization of SGLT-2 inhibitors and the fact that patients can present with near-normal glycemia, the diagnosis can be missed. Vigilance with the use of SGLT-2 inhibitors is necessary to decrease morbidity and potentially mortality particularly in patients with long-standing type 2 diabetes associated with marked β-cell insufficiency, type 1 diabetes mellitus, or latent autoimmune diabetes of adult onset. Continue reading >>
Euglycemic Diabetic Ketoacidosis: A Diagnostic And Therapeutic Dilemma
Euglycemic diabetic ketoacidosis: a diagnostic and therapeutic dilemma 1Department of Internal Medicine, Memorial Hospital of Martinsville and Henry County, Martinsville, Virginia, USA, 2Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, El Paso, Texas, USA, 3Senior Research Associate, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA, 4Department of Pharmacology, St Johns Medical College, Bangalore, India, Received 2017 Jul 18; Accepted 2017 Aug 4. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License . Euglycemic diabetic ketoacidosis (EDKA) is a clinical triad comprising increased anion gap metabolic acidosis, ketonemia or ketonuria and normal blood glucose levels <200 mg/dL. This condition is a diagnostic challenge as euglycemia masquerades the underlying diabetic ketoacidosis. Thus, a high clinical suspicion is warranted, and other diagnosis ruled out. Here, we present two patients on regular insulin treatment who were admitted with a diagnosis of EDKA. The first patient had insulin pump failure and the second patient had urinary tract infection and nausea, thereby resulting in starvation. Both of them were aggressively treated with intravenous fluids and insulin drip as per the protocol for the blood glucose levels till the anion gap normalized, and the metabolic acidosis reversed. This case series summarizes, in brief, the etiology, pathophysiology and treatment of EDKA. Euglycemic diabetic ketoacidosis is rare. Consider ketosis in patients with DKA even if their serum glucose levels are normal. High clinical suspicion is required to diagnose EDKA as normal blood sugar levels masquerade the underlying DKA and cause a diagnostic and therapeutic dilemma. Blood pH and blood or urine Continue reading >>
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Euglycemic Diabetic Ketoacidosis: A Potential Complication Of Treatment With Sodiumglucose Cotransporter 2 Inhibition
Objective Sodiumglucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT-2) inhibitors are the most recently approved antihyperglycemic medications. We sought to describe their association with euglycemic diabetic ketoacidosis (euDKA) in hopes that it will enhance recognition of this potentially life-threatening complication. Research Design and Methods Cases identified incidentally are described. Results We identified 13 episodes of SGLT-2 inhibitorassociated euDKA or ketosis in nine individuals, seven with type 1 diabetes and two with type 2 diabetes, from various practices across the U.S. The absence of significant hyperglycemia in these patients delayed recognition of the emergent nature of the problem by patients and providers. Conclusions SGLT-2 inhibitors seem to be associated with euglycemic DKA and ketosis, perhaps as a consequence of their noninsulin-dependent glucose clearance, hyperglucagonemia, and volume depletion. Patients with type 1 or type 2 diabetes who experience nausea, vomiting, or malaise or develop a metabolic acidosis in the setting of SGLT-2 inhibitor therapy should be promptly evaluated for the presence of urine and/or serum ketones. SGLT-2 inhibitors should only be used with great caution, extensive counseling, and close monitoring in the setting of type 1 diabetes. Sodiumglucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT-2) inhibitors are the newest class of antihyperglycemic medications, first marketed in 2013 for the treatment of type 2 diabetes.[ 1 ] Limited studies suggest that SGLT-2 inhibitors may be effective in addressing many of the unmet needs of people with type 1 diabetes, including improving average glycemia, while reducing glycemic variability and postprandial hyperglycemia, without increasing hypoglycemia, as well as promoting weight loss while reducing insulin doses.[ 28 Continue reading >>
Dka That Wasn't: A Case Of Euglycemic Diabetic Ketoacidosis Due To Empagliflozin | Oxford Medical Case Reports | Oxford Academic
Sodium glucose co-transporter (SGLT-2) inhibitor is a relatively new medication used to treat diabetes. At present, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has only approved three medications (canagliflozin, dapagliflozin and empagliflozin) in this drug class for the management of Type 2 diabetes. In May 2015, the FDA issued a warning of ketoacidosis with use of this drug class. Risk factors for the development of ketoacidosis among patients who take SGLT-2 inhibitors include decrease carbohydrate intake/starvation, acute illness and decrease in insulin dose. When identified, immediate cessation of the medication and administration of glucose must be done, and in some instances, starting an insulin drip might be necessary. We present a case of a patient with diabetes mellitus being on empagliflozin (SGLT-2 antagonist) who was admitted for acute cholecystitis. The hospital course was complicated by euglycemic diabetic ketoacidosis after being kept nothing per orem before a contemplated cholecystectomy. The management of diabetes has evolved since its discovery in 1910. A gamut of medications has become available to address the glycemic control among diabetics especially for Type 2 diabetics. Empagliflozin is a sodium glucose co-transporter (SGLT-2) inhibitor that has been approved by the Food and Drug Administraiton (FDA) in August 2014. It has been the latest drug approved in the drug class since 2013. This case highlights a case of euglycemic ketoacidosis with the use of empagliflozin. A 61-year-old female presented to her primary care doctor with right upper quadrant abdominal pain for a day. Her onlymedical history is diabetes Type 2 maintained on empagliflozin and diet controlled hypertension. Patient used to be on the combination of metforminrepaglinide but has bee Continue reading >>
Euglycemic Diabetic Ketoacidosis, A Misleading Presentation Of Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Go to: Introduction Hyperglycemia and ketosis in diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) are the result of insulin deficiency and an increase in the counterregulatory hormones glucagon, catecholamines, cortisol, and growth hormone. Three processes are mainly responsible for hyperglycemia: increased gluconeogenesis, accelerated glycogenolysis, and impaired glucose utilization by peripheral tissues. This might also be augmented by transient insulin resistance due to hormone imbalance, as well as elevated free fatty acids.[1] DKA is most commonly precipitated by infections. Other factors include discontinuation of or inadequate insulin therapy, pancreatitis, myocardial infarction, cerebrovascular accident, and illicit drug use. The diagnostic criteria of DKA, established by the American Diabetic Association, consists of a plasma glucose of >250 mg/dL, positive urinary or serum ketones, arterial pH of <7.3, serum bicarbonate <18 mEq/L, and a high anion gap. The key diagnostic feature of DKA is elevated circulating total blood ketone concentration. Hyperglycemia is also a key diagnostic criterion of DKA; however, a wide range of plasma glucose levels can be present on admission. Continue reading >>
Euglycemic Diabetic Ketoacidosis: A Predictable, Detectable, And Preventable Safety Concern With Sglt2 Inhibitors
The Case At Hand Recently, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued a Drug Safety Communication that warns of an increased risk of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) with uncharacteristically mild to moderate glucose elevations (euglycemic DKA [euDKA]) associated with the use of all the approved sodium–glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors (1). This Communication was based on 20 clinical cases requiring hospitalization captured between March 2013 and June 2014 in the FDA Adverse Event Reporting System database. The scarce clinical data provided suggested that most of the DKA cases were reported in patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D), for whom this class of agents is indicated; most likely, however, they were insulin-treated patients, some with type 1 diabetes (T1D). The FDA also identified potential triggering factors such as intercurrent illness, reduced food and fluid intake, reduced insulin doses, and history of alcohol intake. The following month, at the request of the European Commission, the European Medicines Agency (EMA) announced on 12 June 2015 that the Pharmacovigilance Risk Assessment Committee has started a review of all of the three approved SGLT2 inhibitors (canagliflozin, dapagliflozin, and empagliflozin) to evaluate the risk of DKA in T2D (2). The EMA announcement claimed that as of May 2015 a total of 101 cases of DKA have been reported worldwide in EudraVigilance in T2D patients treated with SGLT2 inhibitors, with an estimated exposure over 0.5 million patient-years. No clinical details were provided except for the mention that “all cases were serious and some required hospitalisation. Although [DKA] is usually accompanied by high blood sugar levels, in a number of these reports blood sugar levels were only moderately increased” (2). Wit Continue reading >>
