Diabetic Ketoacidosis
I. Review of normal lipid metabolism Triglycerides in adipose ==lipolysis==> Long-chain FAs Long-chain FAs==hepatic beta-oxidation==>Acetyl CoA Acetyl CoA==hepatic ketogenesis==>ketone bodies Ketone bodies are Beta-hydroxybutyrate and Acetoacetate Beta-OHB is oxidized to AcAc-; their relative concentrations depend on redox state of cell; Beta-OHB predominates in situation favoring reductive metabolism (e.g. decreased tissue perfusion, met. acidosis, catabolic states--like DKA!) Typical ratio Beta-OHB:AcAc- is 3:1; us. increases in DKA II. Hormonal influences on glucose and lipid metabolism Insulin In liver, increases glu uptake from portal blood; stimulates glycogenesis, inhibits glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis In skeletal muscle, increases glu uptake from blood, stimulates protein synth, inhibits proteolysis In adipose tissue, required for glu and lipoprotein uptake from blood; stimulates lipogenesis, inhibits lipolysis Tissues which don't require insulin to transport glucose into cells: brain, renal medulla, formed blood elements Counterregulatory hormones: glucagon (major player in DKA), epi/norepi, cortisol, growth hormone (no acute effects, only over days-weeks) Glucagon: increases hepatic beta-oxidation, ketogenesis, gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis; decreases hepatic FA synth. Epi/Norepi: increase hepatic gluconeogenesis & glycogenolysis; increases adipose lipolysis; decreases peripheral glu utilization Cortisol: major effect is decreased peripheral glu utiliz; little effect on production Growth hormone: increases hepatic gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis; increases adipose lipolysis In high counterreg. hormone states (see above), require high levels of insulin to avoid progressive hyperglycemia and ketoacidosis--glucagon levels in DKA are 5-6 x nl* III. Pa Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is a medical emergency that can happen in people with diabetes mellitus. DKA happens mostly in people with Type 1 diabetes, although it may happen in some people that have Type 2 diabetes. DKA happens when a person does not have enough insulin in their body. All of the cells in the body need glucose (sugar) to survive, because the body needs sugar to make energy. Insulin breaks down glucose into a form that the body can use for energy. Without insulin, sugar stays in the blood and cannot get into the cells. This causes high blood sugar levels and makes it impossible for the cells to use glucose to make energy. DKA can be caused by not having enough insulin, eating too many carbohydrates, and sometimes physical or mental stress. DKA can also be a sign that a person has diabetes that has not been discovered, or is not being controlled well. DKA is diagnosed through blood and urine testing. These tests will show high blood sugar, which does not happen with other forms of ketoacidosis. DKA was first discovered around 1886. Before insulin therapy was first used in the 1920s, DKA almost always caused death. The "3 polys" of DKA: Polydipsia (feeling very thirsty; this is caused by dehydration) Polyphagia (feeling very hungry; the brain realizes the body's cells are not getting enough sugar and triggers hunger, because normally eating would give the cells the sugar they need) Polyuria (urinating a lot; this is the body's way of trying to get rid of the extra glucose in the bloodstream) A "fruity" smell on the breath (acetone breath, caused by the body trying to blow off the acids and waste products created by DKA) Abdominal pain As DKA gets worse, it can cause these symptoms:[2] Confusion, which becomes worse and worse (because the brain is not getti Continue reading >>
Dka Vs Hhs (hhns) Nclex Review
Diabetic ketoacidosis vs hyperglycemic hyperosmolar nonketotic syndrome (HHNS or HHS): What are the differences between these two complications of diabetes mellitus? This NCLEX review will simplify the differences between DKA and HHNS and give you a video lecture that easily explains their differences. Many students get these two complications confused due to their similarities, but there are major differences between these two complications. After reviewing this NCLEX review, don’t forget to take the quiz on DKA vs HHNS. Lecture on DKA and HHS DKA vs HHNS Diabetic Ketoacidosis Affects mainly Type 1 diabetics Ketones and Acidosis present Hyperglycemia presents >300 mg/dL Variable osmolality Happens Suddenly Causes: no insulin present in the body or illness/infection Seen in young or undiagnosed diabetics Main problems are hyperglycemia, ketones, and acidosis (blood pH <7.35) Clinical signs/symptoms: Kussmaul breathing, fruity breath, abdominal pain Treatment is the same as in HHNS (fluids, electrolyte replacement, and insulin) Watch potassium levels closely when giving insulin and make sure the level is at least 3.3 before administrating. Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar Nonketotic Syndrome Affects mainly Type 2 diabetics No ketones or acidosis present EXTREME Hyperglycemia (remember heavy-duty hyperglycemia) >600 mg/dL sometimes four digits High Osmolality (more of an issue in HHNS than DKA) Happens Gradually Causes: mainly illness or infection and there is some insulin present which prevents the breakdown of ketones Seen in older adults due to illness or infection Main problems are dehydration & heavy-duty hyperglycemia and hyperosmolarity (because the glucose is so high it makes the blood very concentrated) More likely to have mental status changes due to severe dehydrat Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis Explained
Twitter Summary: DKA - a major complication of #diabetes – we describe what it is, symptoms, who’s at risk, prevention + treatment! One of the most notorious complications of diabetes is diabetic ketoacidosis, or DKA. First described in the late 19th century, DKA represented something close to the ultimate diabetes emergency: In just 24 hours, people can experience an onset of severe symptoms, all leading to coma or death. But DKA also represents one of the great triumphs of the revolution in diabetes care over the last century. Before the discovery of insulin in 1920, DKA was almost invariably fatal, but the mortality rate for DKA dropped to below 30 percent within 10 years, and now fewer than 1 percent of those who develop DKA die from it, provided they get adequate care in time. Don’t skip over that last phrase, because it’s crucial: DKA is very treatable, but only as long as it’s diagnosed promptly and patients understand the risk. Table of Contents: What are the symptoms of DKA? Does DKA occur in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes? What Can Patients do to Prevent DKA? What is DKA? Insulin plays a critical role in the body’s functioning: it tells cells to absorb the glucose in the blood so that the body can use it for energy. When there’s no insulin to take that glucose out of the blood, high blood sugar (hyperglycemia) results. The body will also start burning fatty acids for energy, since it can’t get that energy from glucose. To make fatty acids usable for energy, the liver has to convert them into compounds known as ketones, and these ketones make the blood more acidic. DKA results when acid levels get too high in the blood. There are other issues too, as DKA also often leads to the overproduction and release of hormones like glucagon and adrenaline Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is a potentially life-threatening complication of diabetes mellitus.[1] Signs and symptoms may include vomiting, abdominal pain, deep gasping breathing, increased urination, weakness, confusion, and occasionally loss of consciousness.[1] A person's breath may develop a specific smell.[1] Onset of symptoms is usually rapid.[1] In some cases people may not realize they previously had diabetes.[1] DKA happens most often in those with type 1 diabetes, but can also occur in those with other types of diabetes under certain circumstances.[1] Triggers may include infection, not taking insulin correctly, stroke, and certain medications such as steroids.[1] DKA results from a shortage of insulin; in response the body switches to burning fatty acids which produces acidic ketone bodies.[3] DKA is typically diagnosed when testing finds high blood sugar, low blood pH, and ketoacids in either the blood or urine.[1] The primary treatment of DKA is with intravenous fluids and insulin.[1] Depending on the severity, insulin may be given intravenously or by injection under the skin.[3] Usually potassium is also needed to prevent the development of low blood potassium.[1] Throughout treatment blood sugar and potassium levels should be regularly checked.[1] Antibiotics may be required in those with an underlying infection.[6] In those with severely low blood pH, sodium bicarbonate may be given; however, its use is of unclear benefit and typically not recommended.[1][6] Rates of DKA vary around the world.[5] In the United Kingdom, about 4% of people with type 1 diabetes develop DKA each year, while in Malaysia the condition affects about 25% a year.[1][5] DKA was first described in 1886 and, until the introduction of insulin therapy in the 1920s, it was almost univ Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis (dka)
Snap Shot A 12 year old boy, previously healthy, is admitted to the hospital after 2 days of polyuria, polyphagia, nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain. Vital signs are: Temp 37C, BP 103/63 mmHg, HR 112, RR 30. Physical exam shows a lethargic boy. Labs are notable for WBC 16,000, Glucose 534, K 5.9, pH 7.13, PCO2 is 20 mmHg, PO2 is 90 mmHg. Introduction Complication of type I diabetes result of ↓ insulin, ↑ glucagon, growth hormone, catecholamine Precipitated by infections drugs (steroids, thiazide diuretics) noncompliance pancreatitis undiagnosed DM Presentation Symptoms abdominal pain vomiting Physical exam Kussmaul respiration increased tidal volume and rate as a result of metabolic acidosis fruity, acetone odor severe hypovolemia coma Evaluation Serology blood glucose levels > 250 mg/dL due to ↑ gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis arterial pH < 7.3 ↑ anion gap due to ketoacidosis, lactic acidosis ↓ HCO3- consumed in an attempt to buffer the increased acid hyponatremia dilutional hyponatremia glucose acts as an osmotic agent and draws water from ICF to ECF hyperkalemia acidosis results in ICF/ECF exchange of H+ for K+ moderate ketonuria and ketonemia due to ↑ lipolysis β-hydroxybutyrate > acetoacetate β-hydroxybutyrate not detected with normal ketone body tests hypertriglyceridemia due to ↓ in capillary lipoprotein lipase activity activated by insulin leukocytosis due to stress-induced cortisol release H2PO4- is increased in urine, as it is titratable acid used to buffer the excess H+ that is being excreted Treatment Fluids Insulin with glucose must prevent resultant hypokalemia and hypophosphatemia labs may show pseudo-hyperkalemia prior to administartion of fluid and insulin due to transcellular shift of potassium out of the cells to balance the H+ be Continue reading >>
Classification, Pathophysiology, Diagnosis And Management Of Diabetes Mellitus
University of Gondar, Ethopia *Corresponding Author: Habtamu Wondifraw Baynes Lecturer Clinical Chemistry University of Gondar, Gondar Amhara 196, Ethiopia Tel: +251910818289 E-mail: [email protected] Citation: Baynes HW (2015) Classification, Pathophysiology, Diagnosis and Management of Diabetes Mellitus. J Diabetes Metab 6:541. doi:10.4172/2155-6156.1000541 Copyright: © 2015 Baynes HW. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Visit for more related articles at Journal of Diabetes & Metabolism Abstract Diabetes Mellitus (DM) is a metabolic disorder characterized by the presence of chronic hyperglycemia either immune-mediated (Type 1 diabetes), insulin resistance (Type 2), gestational or others (environment, genetic defects, infections, and certain drugs). According to International Diabetes Federation Report of 2011 an estimated 366 million people had DM, by 2030 this number is estimated to almost around 552 million. There are different approaches to diagnose diabetes among individuals, The 1997 ADA recommendations for diagnosis of DM focus on fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG), while WHO focuses on Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT). This is importance for regular follow-up of diabetic patients with the health care provider is of great significance in averting any long term complications. Keywords Diabetes mellitus; Epidemiology; Diagnosis; Glycemic management Abbreviations DM: Diabetes Mellitus; FPG: Fasting Plasma Glucose; GAD: Glutamic Acid Decarboxylase; GDM: Gestational Diabetes Mellitus; HDL-cholesterol: High Density Lipoprotein cholesterol; HLA: Human Leucoid Antigen; IDD Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis (dka)
Diabetic ketoacidosis is an acute metabolic complication of diabetes characterized by hyperglycemia, hyperketonemia, and metabolic acidosis. Hyperglycemia causes an osmotic diuresis with significant fluid and electrolyte loss. DKA occurs mostly in type 1 diabetes mellitus (DM). It causes nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain and can progress to cerebral edema, coma, and death. DKA is diagnosed by detection of hyperketonemia and anion gap metabolic acidosis in the presence of hyperglycemia. Treatment involves volume expansion, insulin replacement, and prevention of hypokalemia. Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is most common among patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus and develops when insulin levels are insufficient to meet the body’s basic metabolic requirements. DKA is the first manifestation of type 1 DM in a minority of patients. Insulin deficiency can be absolute (eg, during lapses in the administration of exogenous insulin) or relative (eg, when usual insulin doses do not meet metabolic needs during physiologic stress). Common physiologic stresses that can trigger DKA include Some drugs implicated in causing DKA include DKA is less common in type 2 diabetes mellitus, but it may occur in situations of unusual physiologic stress. Ketosis-prone type 2 diabetes is a variant of type 2 diabetes, which is sometimes seen in obese individuals, often of African (including African-American or Afro-Caribbean) origin. People with ketosis-prone diabetes (also referred to as Flatbush diabetes) can have significant impairment of beta cell function with hyperglycemia, and are therefore more likely to develop DKA in the setting of significant hyperglycemia. SGLT-2 inhibitors have been implicated in causing DKA in both type 1 and type 2 DM. Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis (dka)
Diabetic ketoacidosis is a condition that results from when the body is deprived of the ability to use glucose as an energy source. Usually this is due to a lack of insulin. Insulin is used to uptake glucose into the cells to be used for energy. If there is no insulin or the cells are resistant to insulin, the blood sugar levels increase to dangerous levels for the patient. It seems counter intuitive that the patient wouldn't have energy with such high levels of glucose, but this glucose is essentially unusable without insulin. Because your body needs energy to survive, it starts turning to alternative fuel sources (fat). Fat cells start breaking down and, as a result, release ketones (which are acidic) into the bloodstream. Hence the name: diabetic ketoacidosis. “High levels of ketones can poison the body. When levels get too high, you can develop DKA. DKA may happen to anyone with diabetes, though it is rare in people with type 2. Treatment for DKA usually takes place in the hospital. But you can help prevent it by learning the warning signs and checking your urine and blood regularly.” Causes The most common causes of DKA are not getting enough insulin, having a severe infection, becoming dehydrated, or a combination of these issues. It seems like it occurs mainly in patients with type one diabetes. Symptoms Some of the symptoms that people experience with DKA include the following: Excessive thirst and urination (more water is pulled into the urine as a result of high ketone loss in the urine) Lethargy Breathing very quickly (patients have a very high level of acids in their bloodstream and they try to "blow" off carbon dioxide by breathing quickly) A fruity odor on their breath (ketones have a fruity smell) Nausea and vomiting (the body tries to get rid of acid Continue reading >>
Diabetes And Hypoglycemia Video Classroom
Diabetes Overview Beginning Signs of Diabetes Pathophysiology of Diabetic Nephropathy Glucose Insulin and Diabetes (Kahn) Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation Animation about Diabetes Subtle Warning Signs of Diabetes Diabetes Animation Diabetes Made Simple A Day Living with Diabetes Pathophysiology of Diabetes Mellitus Be Diabetes Prepared Health and Science in Diabetes Role of Insulin in Body Living with Diabetes: Documentary What is Diabetes? Diabetes Type 2: Animation Diabetes Symptoms in Men Glucose Animation Diabetes Emergencies 1 Managing Diabetes Insulin Resistence Diabetes: Foot Care Complications of Diabetes Diabetes Emergencies 2 Type 1 Diabetes Medical Science on Type 2 Diabetes Exercise in Diabetics Type 1 Diabetes Animation Diabetes Emergencies 3 Type 2 Diabetes Board Review: Type 1 and 2 Diabetes Diabetes: Excercise: Reverse Resistence 2 Diabetes Animation Treating Hypoglycemia Quickly What is Type 1 Diabetes Management of Diabetes Diabetes: Excercise as Medicine Metformin Medication Hypoglycemia Pathophysiology of Diabetes Pathophysiology of Diabetes 2 Made Easy Diabetes Animation Metformin for Diabetes Diabetic Ketoacidosis Diabetes: Progress in Stem Cell Research Diabetic Nephropathy for the Non-Nephrologist Diabetes Education Diabetes Medications Diabetic DKA Embryonic Stem Cell Diabetes Research Diabetic Retinopathy Insulin, Glucose and You Metformin Still the Best! Inpatient Diabetes Management Diabetes Basics Diabetic Eye Disease Insulin: Synthesis and Secretion 1 Understanding Diabetes Type 2 Hyperglycemic Crises: Part 1 Diabetes Symptoms Obesity and Diabetes Insulin: Synthesis and Secretion 2 Diabetes Update 2010 Hyperglycemic Crises: Part 2 Diabetes: Complications Metabolism and Nutrition: Diabetes Insulin: Synthesis and Secretion 3 Juvenile Dia Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Print Overview Diabetic ketoacidosis is a serious complication of diabetes that occurs when your body produces high levels of blood acids called ketones. The condition develops when your body can't produce enough insulin. Insulin normally plays a key role in helping sugar (glucose) — a major source of energy for your muscles and other tissues — enter your cells. Without enough insulin, your body begins to break down fat as fuel. This process produces a buildup of acids in the bloodstream called ketones, eventually leading to diabetic ketoacidosis if untreated. If you have diabetes or you're at risk of diabetes, learn the warning signs of diabetic ketoacidosis — and know when to seek emergency care. Symptoms Diabetic ketoacidosis signs and symptoms often develop quickly, sometimes within 24 hours. For some, these signs and symptoms may be the first indication of having diabetes. You may notice: Excessive thirst Frequent urination Nausea and vomiting Abdominal pain Weakness or fatigue Shortness of breath Fruity-scented breath Confusion More-specific signs of diabetic ketoacidosis — which can be detected through home blood and urine testing kits — include: High blood sugar level (hyperglycemia) High ketone levels in your urine When to see a doctor If you feel ill or stressed or you've had a recent illness or injury, check your blood sugar level often. You might also try an over-the-counter urine ketones testing kit. Contact your doctor immediately if: You're vomiting and unable to tolerate food or liquid Your blood sugar level is higher than your target range and doesn't respond to home treatment Your urine ketone level is moderate or high Seek emergency care if: Your blood sugar level is consistently higher than 300 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL), or 16.7 mill Continue reading >>
Management Of Diabetic Ketoacidosis In Adults
Diabetic ketoacidosis is a potentially life-threatening complication of diabetes, making it a medical emergency. Nurses need to know how to identify and manage it and how to maintain electrolyte balance Continue reading >>
Diabetes Pathophysiology
Diabetes occurs when there is a dis-balance between the demand and production of the hormone insulin. Control of blood sugar When food is taken, it is broken down into smaller components. Sugars and carbohydrates are thus broken down into glucose for the body to utilize them as an energy source. The liver is also able to manufacture glucose. In normal persons the hormone insulin, which is made by the beta cells of the pancreas, regulates how much glucose is in the blood. When there is excess of glucose in blood, insulin stimulates cells to absorb enough glucose from the blood for the energy that they need. Insulin also stimulates the liver to absorb and store any excess glucose that is in the blood. Insulin release is triggered after a meal when there is a rise in blood glucose. When blood glucose levels fall, during exercise for example, insulin levels fall too. High insulin will promote glucose uptake, glycolysis (break down of glucose), and glycogenesis (formation of storage form of glucose called glycogen), as well as uptake and synthesis of amino acids, proteins, and fat. Low insulin will promote gluconeogenesis (breakdown of various substrates to release glucose), glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen to release gluose), lipolysis (breakdown of lipids to release glucose), and proteolysis (breakdown of proteins to release glucose). Insulin acts via insulin receptors. Liver Adipose or fat Tissue Muscle High insulin Glycolysis Glycogenesis Triglyceride synthesis Amino acid uptake Protein synthesis Low insulin Gluconeogenesis Glycogenolysis Lipolysis Proteolysis Normal Responses to Eating and Fasting In a fed state: there is increased insulin secretion, causing glycolysis, glycogen storage, fatty acid synthesis/storage, and protein synthesis. After an overnight fast: Continue reading >>
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Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Professor of Pediatric Endocrinology University of Khartoum, Sudan Introduction DKA is a serious acute complications of Diabetes Mellitus. It carries significant risk of death and/or morbidity especially with delayed treatment. The prognosis of DKA is worse in the extremes of age, with a mortality rates of 5-10%. With the new advances of therapy, DKA mortality decreases to > 2%. Before discovery and use of Insulin (1922) the mortality was 100%. Epidemiology DKA is reported in 2-5% of known type 1 diabetic patients in industrialized countries, while it occurs in 35-40% of such patients in Africa. DKA at the time of first diagnosis of diabetes mellitus is reported in only 2-3% in western Europe, but is seen in 95% of diabetic children in Sudan. Similar results were reported from other African countries . Consequences The latter observation is annoying because it implies the following: The late diagnosis of type 1 diabetes in many developing countries particularly in Africa. The late presentation of DKA, which is associated with risk of morbidity & mortality Death of young children with DKA undiagnosed or wrongly diagnosed as malaria or meningitis. Pathophysiology Secondary to insulin deficiency, and the action of counter-regulatory hormones, blood glucose increases leading to hyperglycemia and glucosuria. Glucosuria causes an osmotic diuresis, leading to water & Na loss. In the absence of insulin activity the body fails to utilize glucose as fuel and uses fats instead. This leads to ketosis. Pathophysiology/2 The excess of ketone bodies will cause metabolic acidosis, the later is also aggravated by Lactic acidosis caused by dehydration & poor tissue perfusion. Vomiting due to an ileus, plus increased insensible water losses due to tachypnea will worsen the state of dehydr Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis In Pregnancy
Abstract Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is a life-threatening medical emergency and is characterized by hyperglycemia, acidosis, and ketonemia. DKA is observed in 5–10 % of all pregnancies complicated by pregestational diabetes mellitus. Laboratory findings are as follows: Ketonemia 3 mmol/L and over or significant ketonuria (more than 2+ on standard urine sticks) Blood glucose over 11 mmol/L or known diabetes mellitus Bicarbonate (HCO3 −−) below 15 mmol/L and/or venous pH less than 7.3 Common risk factors for DKA in pregnancy are new-onset diabetes, infections like UTI, influenza, poor patient compliance, insulin pump failure, treatment with β-mimetic tocolytic medications, and antenatal corticosteroids for fetal lung maturity. Patient should be counseled about the precipitating cause and early warning symptoms of DKA. DKA should be treated promptly, and HDU/level 2 facility with trained nursing staff and/or insertion of central line is required during pregnancy for its management. Continuous fetal heart rate monitoring commonly demonstrates recurrent late decelerations. Delivery is rarely indicated as FHR pattern resolves as maternal condition improves. DKA therapy can lead to frequent complication of hypoglycemia and hypokalemia, so glucose and K concentration monitoring should be done judiciously. Maternal mortality is rare now with proper management, but fetal mortality is still quite high ranging from 10 to 35 %. Continue reading >>
