Hyperglycemic Crises: Diabetic Ketoacidosis (dka), And Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar State (hhs)
Go to: Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state (HHS) are acute metabolic complications of diabetes mellitus that can occur in patients with both type 1 and 2 diabetes mellitus. Timely diagnosis, comprehensive clinical and biochemical evaluation, and effective management is key to the successful resolution of DKA and HHS. Critical components of the hyperglycemic crises management include coordinating fluid resuscitation, insulin therapy, and electrolyte replacement along with the continuous patient monitoring using available laboratory tools to predict the resolution of the hyperglycemic crisis. Understanding and prompt awareness of potential of special situations such as DKA or HHS presentation in comatose state, possibility of mixed acid-base disorders obscuring the diagnosis of DKA, and risk of brain edema during the therapy are important to reduce the risks of complications without affecting recovery from hyperglycemic crisis. Identification of factors that precipitated DKA or HHS during the index hospitalization should help prevent subsequent episode of hyperglycemic crisis. For extensive review of all related areas of Endocrinology, visit WWW.ENDOTEXT.ORG. Go to: INTRODUCTION Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS) represent two extremes in the spectrum of decompensated diabetes. DKA and HHS remain important causes of morbidity and mortality among diabetic patients despite well developed diagnostic criteria and treatment protocols (1). The annual incidence of DKA from population-based studies is estimated to range from 4 to 8 episodes per 1,000 patient admissions with diabetes (2). The incidence of DKA continues to increase and it accounts for about 140,000 hospitalizations in the US in 2009 (Figure 1 a) (3). Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis
OVERVIEW potentially life-threatening complication of diabetes melitus resulting from the consequences of insulin deficiency Diagnostic criteria pH < 7.3 ketosis (ketonemia or ketonuria) HCO3 <15 mmol/L due to high anion gap metabolic acidosis (HAGMA) hyperglycemia (may be mild; euglycemic DKA can occur) PATHOGENESIS increased glucagon, cortisol, catcholamines, GH decreased insulin -> hyperglycaemia -> hyperosmolality + glycosuria -> electrolyte loss -> ketone production from metabolism of TG -> acidosis HISTORY dry, abdominal pain, polyuria, weight loss, coma risk factors: non-compliance, illness, newly diagnosed ROS to rule find out possible precipitant (infection, MI, pneumonia, GI illness) normal insulin regime diabetic control previous DKA’s/admissions previous ICU admissions EXAMINATION volume assessment signs of cause e.g. (infection) GCS work of breathing INVESTIGATIONS ABG electrolytes osmolality urinalysis: ketones pregnancy test standard investigations to rule out cause: FBC, ECG, CXR MANAGEMENT Goals (1) establish precipitant and treat (2) assess severity of metabolic derangement (3) cautious fluid resuscitation with replacement of body H2O (4) provision of insulin (5) replacement of electrolytes Resuscitate intubation for airway protection if required O2 as required IV access fluid boluses (20mL/kg boluses of NS/HMN) urinary catheter Acid-base and Electrolyte abnormalities will have a severe metabolic acidosis with probable incomplete respiratory compensation K+ may be normal but patient will have a whole body K+ deficiency -> needs to be replaced once < 5mmol/L -> use KH2PO4 Na+ may be deranged acidaemia rarely requires HCO3- therapy and will respond to other treatments Specific therapy start insulin infusion (avoid bolus) 0.1u/kg/hr aim to lower glucose Continue reading >>
Diagnosis And Treatment Of Diabetic Ketoacidosis In Children And Adolescents
The diagnostic criteria for type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) have been detailed elsewhere in “Canadian Diabetes Association 2003 clinical practice guidelines for the prevention and management of diabetes in Canada” (1). It is important to reiterate that a second test on another day is rarely required to make the diagnosis of diabetes in children. In fact, the delay may result in a more severe presentation with diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA). As such, a health care professional trained in the education and management of children and adolescents with diabetes should be contacted as soon as an elevated glucose level is discovered. The guidelines presented in the present article are derived primarily from two sources. The first is the “European Society for Pediatric Endocrinology/Lawson Wilkins Pediatric Endocrine Society consensus statement on diabetic ketoacidosis in children and adolescents” (2). This was developed by an expert panel who convened in June 2003 to review the current literature on DKA. The second is the “ISPAD [International Society for Pediatric and Adolescent Diabetes] consensus guidelines for the management of type 1 diabetes mellitus in children and adolescents” (3) which provides more specific guidelines for the management of DKA. Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Practice Essentials Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is an acute, major, life-threatening complication of diabetes that mainly occurs in patients with type 1 diabetes, but it is not uncommon in some patients with type 2 diabetes. This condition is a complex disordered metabolic state characterized by hyperglycemia, ketoacidosis, and ketonuria. Signs and symptoms The most common early symptoms of DKA are the insidious increase in polydipsia and polyuria. The following are other signs and symptoms of DKA: Nausea and vomiting; may be associated with diffuse abdominal pain, decreased appetite, and anorexia History of failure to comply with insulin therapy or missed insulin injections due to vomiting or psychological reasons or history of mechanical failure of insulin infusion pump Altered consciousness (eg, mild disorientation, confusion); frank coma is uncommon but may occur when the condition is neglected or with severe dehydration/acidosis Signs and symptoms of DKA associated with possible intercurrent infection are as follows: See Clinical Presentation for more detail. Diagnosis On examination, general findings of DKA may include the following: Characteristic acetone (ketotic) breath odor In addition, evaluate patients for signs of possible intercurrent illnesses such as MI, UTI, pneumonia, and perinephric abscess. Search for signs of infection is mandatory in all cases. Testing Initial and repeat laboratory studies for patients with DKA include the following: Serum electrolyte levels (eg, potassium, sodium, chloride, magnesium, calcium, phosphorus) Note that high serum glucose levels may lead to dilutional hyponatremia; high triglyceride levels may lead to factitious low glucose levels; and high levels of ketone bodies may lead to factitious elevation of creatinine levels. Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Initial Evaluation Initial evaluation of patients with DKA includes diagnosis and treatment of precipitating factors (Table 14–18). The most common precipitating factor is infection, followed by noncompliance with insulin therapy.3 While insulin pump therapy has been implicated as a risk factor for DKA in the past, most recent studies show that with proper education and practice using the pump, the frequency of DKA is the same for patients on pump and injection therapy.19 Common causes by frequency Other causes Selected drugs that may contribute to diabetic ketoacidosis Infection, particularly pneumonia, urinary tract infection, and sepsis4 Inadequate insulin treatment or noncompliance4 New-onset diabetes4 Cardiovascular disease, particularly myocardial infarction5 Acanthosis nigricans6 Acromegaly7 Arterial thrombosis, including mesenteric and iliac5 Cerebrovascular accident5 Hemochromatosis8 Hyperthyroidism9 Pancreatitis10 Pregnancy11 Atypical antipsychotic agents12 Corticosteroids13 FK50614 Glucagon15 Interferon16 Sympathomimetic agents including albuterol (Ventolin), dopamine (Intropin), dobutamine (Dobutrex), terbutaline (Bricanyl),17 and ritodrine (Yutopar)18 DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS Three key features of diabetic acidosis are hyperglycemia, ketosis, and acidosis. The conditions that cause these metabolic abnormalities overlap. The primary differential diagnosis for hyperglycemia is hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (Table 23,20), which is discussed in the Stoner article21 on page 1723 of this issue. Common problems that produce ketosis include alcoholism and starvation. Metabolic states in which acidosis is predominant include lactic acidosis and ingestion of drugs such as salicylates and methanol. Abdominal pain may be a symptom of ketoacidosis or part of the inci Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis And Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar Syndrome
In Brief Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperosmolar hyperglycemic syndrome (HHS) are two acute complications of diabetes that can result in increased morbidity and mortality if not efficiently and effectively treated. Mortality rates are 2–5% for DKA and 15% for HHS, and mortality is usually a consequence of the underlying precipitating cause(s) rather than a result of the metabolic changes of hyperglycemia. Effective standardized treatment protocols, as well as prompt identification and treatment of the precipitating cause, are important factors affecting outcome. The two most common life-threatening complications of diabetes mellitus include diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar syndrome (HHS). Although there are important differences in their pathogenesis, the basic underlying mechanism for both disorders is a reduction in the net effective concentration of circulating insulin coupled with a concomitant elevation of counterregulatory hormones (glucagon, catecholamines, cortisol, and growth hormone). These hyperglycemic emergencies continue to be important causes of morbidity and mortality among patients with diabetes. DKA is reported to be responsible for more than 100,000 hospital admissions per year in the United States1 and accounts for 4–9% of all hospital discharge summaries among patients with diabetes.1 The incidence of HHS is lower than DKA and accounts for <1% of all primary diabetic admissions.1 Most patients with DKA have type 1 diabetes; however, patients with type 2 diabetes are also at risk during the catabolic stress of acute illness.2 Contrary to popular belief, DKA is more common in adults than in children.1 In community-based studies, more than 40% of African-American patients with DKA were >40 years of age and more than 2 Continue reading >>
Diagnostic Criteria And Classification Of Dka
diagnostic criteria The diagnostic criteria for diabetic ketoacidosis are: ketonaemia 3 mmol /l and over or significant ketonuria (more than 2 + on standard urine sticks) blood glucose over 11 mmol /l or known diabetes mellitus venous bicarbonate (HCO3 ) ) below 15 mmol /l and /or venous pH less than 7.3 (1) The American Diabetes Association diagnostic criteria for DKA are as follows: elevated serum glucose level (greater than 250 mg per dL [13.88 mmol per L]) an elevated serum ketone level a pH less than 7.3 and a serum bicarbonate level less than 18 mEq per L (18 mmol per L) (2) classification of diabetic ketoacidosis DKA can be classified according to the severity into mild, moderate and severe (2) criterion mild (serum glucose > 250 mg/dL [13.88 mmol/L]) moderate (serum glucose > 250 mg/dL) severe (serum glucose > 250 mg/dL) anion gap > 10 mEq/L (10 mmol/L) > 12 mEq/L (12 mmol/L) > 12 mEq/L (12 mmol/L) arterial pH 7.24 to 7.30 7.00 to < 7.24 < 7.00 effective serum osmolality variable variable variable mental status alert alert/drowsy stupor/coma serum bicarbonate 15 to 18 mEq/L (15 to 18 mmol/L) 10 to < 15 mEq/L (10 to < 15 mmol/L) < 10 mEq/L (10 mmol/L) serum ketone positive positive positive urine ketone positive positive positive Reference: Continue reading >>
- Mastery in Diabetes Management: New Diabetes Diagnosis Criteria Req'd for Asian Patients?
- Diagnostic accuracy of resting systolic toe pressure for diagnosis of peripheral arterial disease in people with and without diabetes: a cross-sectional retrospective case-control study
- Diabetes Complications in Dogs and Cats: Diabetes Ketoacidosis (DKA)
Hyperglycemic Crises In Adult Patients With Diabetes
Go to: PATHOGENESIS The events leading to hyperglycemia and ketoacidosis are depicted in Fig. 1 (13). In DKA, reduced effective insulin concentrations and increased concentrations of counterregulatory hormones (catecholamines, cortisol, glucagon, and growth hormone) lead to hyperglycemia and ketosis. Hyperglycemia develops as a result of three processes: increased gluconeogenesis, accelerated glycogenolysis, and impaired glucose utilization by peripheral tissues (12–17). This is magnified by transient insulin resistance due to the hormone imbalance itself as well as the elevated free fatty acid concentrations (4,18). The combination of insulin deficiency and increased counterregulatory hormones in DKA also leads to the release of free fatty acids into the circulation from adipose tissue (lipolysis) and to unrestrained hepatic fatty acid oxidation in the liver to ketone bodies (β-hydroxybutyrate and acetoacetate) (19), with resulting ketonemia and metabolic acidosis. Increasing evidence indicates that the hyperglycemia in patients with hyperglycemic crises is associated with a severe inflammatory state characterized by an elevation of proinflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-β, -6, and -8), C-reactive protein, reactive oxygen species, and lipid peroxidation, as well as cardiovascular risk factors, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 and free fatty acids in the absence of obvious infection or cardiovascular pathology (20). All of these parameters return to near-normal values with insulin therapy and hydration within 24 h. The procoagulant and inflammatory states may be due to nonspecific phenomena of stress and may partially explain the association of hyperglycemic crises with a hypercoagulable state (21). The pathogenesis of HHS is not as wel Continue reading >>
Refining The Diagnostic Criteria For Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Refining the Diagnostic Criteria for Diabetic Ketoacidosis Current consensus criteria for Current consensus criteria for a diagnosis of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) include the presence of ketonuria/ketonemia, a serum bicarbonate (HCO3) [le] 18 mEq/L, a pH [le] 7.30, and a glucose [gt] 250 mg/dL. These diagnostic criteria have limitations, however. Measurement of ketone bodies (KB) by the conventional nitroprusside method is not quantitative. Moreover, HCO3 and pH lack sensitivity and specificity due to coexisting acid-base disturbances (e.g., lactic acidosis, renal acidosis, and/or metabolic alkalosis due to HCl loss from vomiting) and variable respiratory compensation. On the other hand, plasma KB anion concentration is a specific indicator of DKA because it is a direct reflection of KB production, which is accompanied by equimolar production of hydrogen ion. In the present study, we sought to develop a diagnostic criterion for DKA using a laboratory-based [beta]-hydroxybutyrate ([beta]OHB) assay, and to evaluate the degree of diagnostic discordance between [beta]OHB and HCO3. Data were retrieved electronically by ICD-9 code and for simultaneous measurement of [beta]OHB and HCO3. A total of 485 separate encounters in 314 patients with diabetes were identified for the years 1994-2006. There was a strong negative correlation between [beta]OHB and HCO3 by regression analysis (r2 = 0.64, P [lt] 0.0001). The [beta]OHB value that corresponded to a HCO3 value of 18 mEq/L was 3.6 mmol/L. Therefore, a [beta]OHB value [ge] 3.6 mmol/L was used to define DKA, and encounters with values [lt] 3.6 mmol/L were considered to be non-DKA. In DKA cases on admission (n=262), [beta]OHB was 7.8 [plusmn] 0.2 mmol/L, HCO3 was 11.5 [plusmn] 0.4 mEq/L, and glucose was 478 [plusmn] 13 mg/dL. The Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Abbas E. Kitabchi, PhD., MD., FACP, FACE Professor of Medicine & Molecular Sciences and Maston K. Callison Professor in the Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism UT Health Science Center, 920 Madison Ave., 300A, Memphis, TN 38163 Aidar R. Gosmanov, M.D., Ph.D., D.M.Sc. Assistant Professor of Medicine, Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, 920 Madison Avenue, Suite 300A, Memphis, TN 38163 Clinical Recognition Omission of insulin and infection are the two most common precipitants of DKA. Non-compliance may account for up to 44% of DKA presentations; while infection is less frequently observed in DKA patients. Acute medical illnesses involving the cardiovascular system (myocardial infarction, stroke, acute thrombosis) and gastrointestinal tract (bleeding, pancreatitis), diseases of endocrine axis (acromegaly, Cushing`s syndrome, hyperthyroidism) and impaired thermo-regulation or recent surgical procedures can contribute to the development of DKA by causing dehydration, increase in insulin counter-regulatory hormones, and worsening of peripheral insulin resistance. Medications such as diuretics, beta-blockers, corticosteroids, second-generation anti-psychotics, and/or anti-convulsants may affect carbohydrate metabolism and volume status and, therefore, could precipitateDKA. Other factors: psychological problems, eating disorders, insulin pump malfunction, and drug abuse. It is now recognized that new onset T2DM can manifest with DKA. These patients are obese, mostly African Americans or Hispanics and have undiagnosed hyperglycemia, impaired insulin secretion, and insulin action. A recent report suggests that cocaine abuse is an independent risk factor associated with DKA recurrence. Pathophysiology In Continue reading >>
Management Of Adult Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Go to: Abstract Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is a rare yet potentially fatal hyperglycemic crisis that can occur in patients with both type 1 and 2 diabetes mellitus. Due to its increasing incidence and economic impact related to the treatment and associated morbidity, effective management and prevention is key. Elements of management include making the appropriate diagnosis using current laboratory tools and clinical criteria and coordinating fluid resuscitation, insulin therapy, and electrolyte replacement through feedback obtained from timely patient monitoring and knowledge of resolution criteria. In addition, awareness of special populations such as patients with renal disease presenting with DKA is important. During the DKA therapy, complications may arise and appropriate strategies to prevent these complications are required. DKA prevention strategies including patient and provider education are important. This review aims to provide a brief overview of DKA from its pathophysiology to clinical presentation with in depth focus on up-to-date therapeutic management. Keywords: DKA treatment, insulin, prevention, ESKD Go to: Introduction In 2009, there were 140,000 hospitalizations for diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) with an average length of stay of 3.4 days.1 The direct and indirect annual cost of DKA hospitalizations is 2.4 billion US dollars. Omission of insulin is the most common precipitant of DKA.2,3 Infections, acute medical illnesses involving the cardiovascular system (myocardial infarction, stroke) and gastrointestinal tract (bleeding, pancreatitis), diseases of the endocrine axis (acromegaly, Cushing’s syndrome), and stress of recent surgical procedures can contribute to the development of DKA by causing dehydration, increase in insulin counter-regulatory hor Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is a potentially life-threatening complication of diabetes mellitus.[1] Signs and symptoms may include vomiting, abdominal pain, deep gasping breathing, increased urination, weakness, confusion, and occasionally loss of consciousness.[1] A person's breath may develop a specific smell.[1] Onset of symptoms is usually rapid.[1] In some cases people may not realize they previously had diabetes.[1] DKA happens most often in those with type 1 diabetes, but can also occur in those with other types of diabetes under certain circumstances.[1] Triggers may include infection, not taking insulin correctly, stroke, and certain medications such as steroids.[1] DKA results from a shortage of insulin; in response the body switches to burning fatty acids which produces acidic ketone bodies.[3] DKA is typically diagnosed when testing finds high blood sugar, low blood pH, and ketoacids in either the blood or urine.[1] The primary treatment of DKA is with intravenous fluids and insulin.[1] Depending on the severity, insulin may be given intravenously or by injection under the skin.[3] Usually potassium is also needed to prevent the development of low blood potassium.[1] Throughout treatment blood sugar and potassium levels should be regularly checked.[1] Antibiotics may be required in those with an underlying infection.[6] In those with severely low blood pH, sodium bicarbonate may be given; however, its use is of unclear benefit and typically not recommended.[1][6] Rates of DKA vary around the world.[5] In the United Kingdom, about 4% of people with type 1 diabetes develop DKA each year, while in Malaysia the condition affects about 25% a year.[1][5] DKA was first described in 1886 and, until the introduction of insulin therapy in the 1920s, it was almost univ Continue reading >>
Management Of Diabetic Ketoacidosis In Children And Adolescents
Objectives After completing this article, readers should be able to: Describe the typical presentation of diabetic ketoacidosis in children. Discuss the treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis. Explain the potential complications of diabetic ketoacidosis that can occur during treatment. Introduction Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) represents a profound insulin-deficient state characterized by hyperglycemia (>200 mg/dL [11.1 mmol/L]) and acidosis (serum pH <7.3, bicarbonate <15 mEq/L [15 mmol/L]), along with evidence of an accumulation of ketoacids in the blood (measurable serum or urine ketones, increased anion gap). Dehydration, electrolyte loss, and hyperosmolarity contribute to the presentation and potential complications. DKA is the most common cause of death in children who have type 1 diabetes. Therefore, the best treatment of DKA is prevention through early recognition and diagnosis of diabetes in a child who has polydipsia and polyuria and through careful attention to the treatment of children who have known diabetes, particularly during illnesses. Presentation Patients who have DKA generally present with nausea and vomiting. In individuals who have no previous diagnosis of diabetes mellitus, a preceding history of polyuria, polydipsia, and weight loss usually can be elicited. With significant ketosis, patients may have a fruity breath. As the DKA becomes more severe, patients develop lethargy due to the acidosis and hyperosmolarity; in severe DKA, they may present with coma. Acidosis and ketosis cause an ileus that can lead to abdominal pain severe enough to raise concern for an acutely inflamed abdomen, and the elevation of the stress hormones epinephrine and cortisol in DKA can lead to an elevation in the white blood cell count, suggesting infection. Thus, leukocytosi Continue reading >>
Diabetic Emergencies — Ketoacidosis, Hyperglycaemic Hyperosmolar State And Hypoglycaemia
Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), hyperglycaemic hyperosmolar state (HHS) and hypoglycaemia are serious complications of diabetes mellitus that require prompt recognition, diagnosis and treatment. DKA and HHS are characterized by insulinopaenia and severe hyperglycaemia; clinically, these two conditions differ only by the degree of dehydration and the severity of metabolic acidosis. The overall mortality recorded among children and adults with DKA is <1%. Mortality among patients with HHS is ∼10-fold higher than that associated with DKA. The prognosis and outcome of patients with DKA or HHS are determined by the severity of dehydration, the presence of comorbidities and age >60 years. The estimated annual cost of hospital treatment for patients experiencing hyperglycaemic crises in the USA exceeds US$2 billion. Hypoglycaemia is a frequent and serious adverse effect of antidiabetic therapy that is associated with both immediate and delayed adverse clinical outcomes, as well as increased economic costs. Inpatients who develop hypoglycaemia are likely to experience a long duration of hospital stay and increased mortality. This Review describes the clinical presentation, precipitating causes, diagnosis and acute management of these diabetic emergencies, including a discussion of practical strategies for their prevention. Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis And Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State In Adults: Clinical Features, Evaluation, And Diagnosis
INTRODUCTION Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS, also known as hyperosmotic hyperglycemic nonketotic state [HHNK]) are two of the most serious acute complications of diabetes. DKA is characterized by ketoacidosis and hyperglycemia, while HHS usually has more severe hyperglycemia but no ketoacidosis (table 1). Each represents an extreme in the spectrum of hyperglycemia. The precipitating factors, clinical features, evaluation, and diagnosis of DKA and HHS in adults will be reviewed here. The epidemiology, pathogenesis, and treatment of these disorders are discussed separately. DKA in children is also reviewed separately. (See "Diabetic ketoacidosis and hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state in adults: Epidemiology and pathogenesis".) Continue reading >>
