Diagnosis And Treatment Of Diabetic Ketoacidosis (dka) In Dogs And Cats
What is DKA in Dogs and Cats? Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA) is a serious and life-threatening complication of diabetes mellitus that can occur in dogs and cats. DKA is characterized by hyperglycemia, ketonemia, +/- ketonuria, and metabolic acidosis. Ketone bodies are formed by lipolysis (breakdown) of fat and beta-oxidation when the metabolic demands of the cells are not met by the limited intracellular glucose concentrations. This provides alternative energy sources for cells, which are most important for the brain. The three ketones that are formed include beta-hydroxybutyrate, acetoacetate and acetone. Beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) and acetoacetate are anions of moderately strong acids contributing most to the academia (low blood pH). Acetone is the ketone body that can be detected on breath. In a normal animal, glucose enters the cell (with help of insulin) – undergoes glycolysis to pyruvate within cytosol – pyruvate moves into mitochondria (energy generating organelle in the cell) to enter the TCA cycle and ATP is formed. ATP is the main energy source of the body. When glucose cannot enter the cell, free fatty acids are broken down (lipolysis) and move into the cell to undergo beta-oxidation (creation of pyruvate). The pyruvate then moves into the mitochondria to enter the TCA cycle (by conversion to Acetyl-CoA first). However, when the TCA cycle is overwhelmed, the Acetyl-CoA is used in ketogenesis to form ketone bodies. Summary Diabetic Ketoacidosis (DKA) in Dogs and Cats When there is no insulin the body cannot utilize glucose and there is no intracellular glucose. The body then uses ketone bodes as an alternate source. When there is decreased insulin and increased counterregulatory hormones fatty acids are converted to AcCoA and then ketones. In the non-diabetic Continue reading >>
Diagnosis
Print If your doctor suspects diabetic ketoacidosis, he or she will do a physical exam and various blood tests. In some cases, additional tests may be needed to help determine what triggered the diabetic ketoacidosis. Blood tests Blood tests used in the diagnosis of diabetic ketoacidosis will measure: Blood sugar level. If there isn't enough insulin in your body to allow sugar to enter your cells, your blood sugar level will rise (hyperglycemia). As your body breaks down fat and protein for energy, your blood sugar level will continue to rise. Ketone level. When your body breaks down fat and protein for energy, acids known as ketones enter your bloodstream. Blood acidity. If you have excess ketones in your blood, your blood will become acidic (acidosis). This can alter the normal function of organs throughout your body. Additional tests Your doctor may order tests to identify underlying health problems that might have contributed to diabetic ketoacidosis and to check for complications. Tests might include: Blood electrolyte tests Urinalysis Chest X-ray A recording of the electrical activity of the heart (electrocardiogram) Treatment If you're diagnosed with diabetic ketoacidosis, you might be treated in the emergency room or admitted to the hospital. Treatment usually involves: Fluid replacement. You'll receive fluids — either by mouth or through a vein (intravenously) — until you're rehydrated. The fluids will replace those you've lost through excessive urination, as well as help dilute the excess sugar in your blood. Electrolyte replacement. Electrolytes are minerals in your blood that carry an electric charge, such as sodium, potassium and chloride. The absence of insulin can lower the level of several electrolytes in your blood. You'll receive electrolytes throu Continue reading >>
University Of Zagreb
SCHOOL OF MEDICINE Mohammad Imran Khan Malik A review of the efficacy of the Milwaukee protocol in the treatment of ketoacidosis in pediatric Intensive Care Unit patients at Rebro hospital between 2009-2014. GRADUATE THESIS Zagreb, 2014 UNIVERSITY OF ZAGREB SCHOOL OF MEDICINE Mohammad Imran Khan Malik A review of the efficacy of the Milwaukee protocol in the treatment of ketoacidosis in pediatric Intensive Care Unit patients at Rebro hospital between 2009-2014. GRADUATE THESIS Zagreb, 2014 This graduation paper has been completed at the Department of Paediatrics at the University Hospital Centre Zagreb (Rebro hospital) under the supervision of Dr. sc. Mario Ćuk and was submitted for evaluation during the academic year 2013 /2014. LIST OF TABLES Table 1: DKA laboratory diagnosis criteria Table 2: Classification of DKA. Modified from Kliegman et al. Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics, 2011. Table 3: Table 3: Summary of key data of patients admitted to pediatric ICU at Rebro hospital. LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: DKA pathogenesis. Figure 2: Ketone bodies: showing formation of negatively charged conjugate bases of the ketoacids. The conjugate bases cause the increased anion gap in DKA metabolic acidosis. Figure 3: Algorithm of key steps in DKA pathophysiology. Colour coded to highlight the two areas that treatment should target: metabolic acidosis and hyperglycemia. Figure 4: True sodium level calculations for glucose levels above 100mg/dL (5.6mmol/L). Figure 5: Goals of DKA management Figure 6: Diabetic ketoacidosis treatment: Milwaukee protocol. Modified from Kliegman et al. Nelson Textbook of Paediatrics. 2011 p.1979 Figure 7: DKA incidence between 1 st January 2009 – 30 th June 2014. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS DKA ..............Diabetic Ketoacidosis CE...................C Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Treatment Approach The main goals of treatment are: Restoration of volume deficits Resolution of hyperglycemia and ketosis/acidosis Correction of electrolyte abnormalities (potassium level should be >3.3 mEq/L before initiation of insulin therapy; use of insulin in a patient with hypokalemia may lead to respiratory paralysis, cardiac arrhythmias, and death) Treatment of the precipitating events and prevention of complications. It must be emphasized that successful treatment requires frequent monitoring of clinical and laboratory parameters to achieve resolution criteria. A treatment protocol and a flow sheet for recording the treatment stages and laboratory data should be maintained. [1] [38] [39] [40] Initial and supportive treatment The majority of patients present to the emergency department, where treatment should be initiated. There are several important steps that should be followed in early management: Fluid therapy should be started immediately after initial laboratory evaluations. Infusion of isotonic solution of 0.9% sodium chloride at a rate of 1 to 1.5 L/hour should be used for the first hour of fluid therapy. Indications for admission to the intensive care unit (ICU) are hemodynamic instability or cardiogenic shock, altered mental status, respiratory insufficiency, severe acidosis, and hyperosmolar state with coma. The diagnosis of hemodynamic instability should made by observing for hypotension and clinical signs of poor tissue perfusion, including oliguria, cyanosis, cool extremities, and altered mental state. After admission to ICU, central venous and arterial lines are required, with continuous percutaneous oximetry. Oxygenation and airway protection are critical. Intubation and mechanical ventilation are commonly required, with constant monitoring of r Continue reading >>
Hyperglycemic Crises In Diabetes
Ketoacidosis and hyperosmolar hyperglycemia are the two most serious acute metabolic complications of diabetes, even if managed properly. These disorders can occur in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. The mortality rate in patients with diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is <5% in experienced centers, whereas the mortality rate of patients with hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS) still remains high at ∼15%. The prognosis of both conditions is substantially worsened at the extremes of age and in the presence of coma and hypotension (1–10). This position statement will outline precipitating factors and recommendations for the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of DKA and HHS. It is based on a previous technical review (11), which should be consulted for further information. PATHOGENESIS Although the pathogenesis of DKA is better understood than that of HHS, the basic underlying mechanism for both disorders is a reduction in the net effective action of circulating insulin coupled with a concomitant elevation of counterregulatory hormones, such as glucagon, catecholamines, cortisol, and growth hormone. These hormonal alterations in DKA and HHS lead to increased hepatic and renal glucose production and impaired glucose utilization in peripheral tissues, which result in hyperglycemia and parallel changes in osmolality of the extracellular space (12,13). The combination of insulin deficiency and increased counterregulatory hormones in DKA also leads to the release of free fatty acids into the circulation from adipose tissue (lipolysis) and to unrestrained hepatic fatty acid oxidation to ketone bodies (β-hydroxybutyrate [β-OHB] and acetoacetate), with resulting ketonemia and metabolic acidosis. On the other hand, HHS may be caused by plasma insulin concentrations that are in Continue reading >>
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Diabetic Ketoacidosis: Evaluation And Treatment
Diabetic ketoacidosis is characterized by a serum glucose level greater than 250 mg per dL, a pH less than 7.3, a serum bicarbonate level less than 18 mEq per L, an elevated serum ketone level, and dehydration. Insulin deficiency is the main precipitating factor. Diabetic ketoacidosis can occur in persons of all ages, with 14 percent of cases occurring in persons older than 70 years, 23 percent in persons 51 to 70 years of age, 27 percent in persons 30 to 50 years of age, and 36 percent in persons younger than 30 years. The case fatality rate is 1 to 5 percent. About one-third of all cases are in persons without a history of diabetes mellitus. Common symptoms include polyuria with polydipsia (98 percent), weight loss (81 percent), fatigue (62 percent), dyspnea (57 percent), vomiting (46 percent), preceding febrile illness (40 percent), abdominal pain (32 percent), and polyphagia (23 percent). Measurement of A1C, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, serum glucose, electrolytes, pH, and serum ketones; complete blood count; urinalysis; electrocardiography; and calculation of anion gap and osmolar gap can differentiate diabetic ketoacidosis from hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state, gastroenteritis, starvation ketosis, and other metabolic syndromes, and can assist in diagnosing comorbid conditions. Appropriate treatment includes administering intravenous fluids and insulin, and monitoring glucose and electrolyte levels. Cerebral edema is a rare but severe complication that occurs predominantly in children. Physicians should recognize the signs of diabetic ketoacidosis for prompt diagnosis, and identify early symptoms to prevent it. Patient education should include information on how to adjust insulin during times of illness and how to monitor glucose and ketone levels, as well as i Continue reading >>
Management Of Adult Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Go to: Abstract Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is a rare yet potentially fatal hyperglycemic crisis that can occur in patients with both type 1 and 2 diabetes mellitus. Due to its increasing incidence and economic impact related to the treatment and associated morbidity, effective management and prevention is key. Elements of management include making the appropriate diagnosis using current laboratory tools and clinical criteria and coordinating fluid resuscitation, insulin therapy, and electrolyte replacement through feedback obtained from timely patient monitoring and knowledge of resolution criteria. In addition, awareness of special populations such as patients with renal disease presenting with DKA is important. During the DKA therapy, complications may arise and appropriate strategies to prevent these complications are required. DKA prevention strategies including patient and provider education are important. This review aims to provide a brief overview of DKA from its pathophysiology to clinical presentation with in depth focus on up-to-date therapeutic management. Keywords: DKA treatment, insulin, prevention, ESKD Go to: Introduction In 2009, there were 140,000 hospitalizations for diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) with an average length of stay of 3.4 days.1 The direct and indirect annual cost of DKA hospitalizations is 2.4 billion US dollars. Omission of insulin is the most common precipitant of DKA.2,3 Infections, acute medical illnesses involving the cardiovascular system (myocardial infarction, stroke) and gastrointestinal tract (bleeding, pancreatitis), diseases of the endocrine axis (acromegaly, Cushing’s syndrome), and stress of recent surgical procedures can contribute to the development of DKA by causing dehydration, increase in insulin counter-regulatory hor Continue reading >>
952: Evaluation Of A Diabetic Ketoacidosis Treatment Protocol Using Subcutaneous Insulin Aspart
Introduction:Insulin therapy is one aspect of managing diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA), and the American Diabetes Association recommends regular insulin by continuous IV infusion as the treatment of choice for all but mild cases of DKA. Several studies, each enrolling a small number of patients, have examined rapid-acting subcutaneous insulin analogs for DKA treatment. Patients in these studies who received subcutaneous insulin analogs were treated outside of the ICU. Hypothesis:A DKA treatment protocol that uses subcutaneous insulin aspart, with weight-based doses administered every two hours, is safe and effective. Methods:This study was a retrospective chart review. Adult patients who received insulin aspart for treatment of DKA at Rush University Medical Center between January 2008 and December 2011 were eligible for study inclusion. Efficacy outcomes included time to resolution of DKA-associated laboratory abnormalities, length of stay, time to initiation of basal insulin, and amount of insulin received. The primary safety outcome was hypoglycemic events. Subgroup analyses were conducted for type 1 vs. type 2 diabetes, DKA severity, and whether or not patients received concomitant antibiotics, steroids, or vasopressors. Results:Seventy-six patients treated with RUMCs DKA protocol were included in the study. The average age was 43 years, 46% were male, 64% were classified as having type 2 diabetes, and the most frequently identified precipitating causes of DKA were non-adherence and a new diabetes diagnosis. The average lengths of ICU and hospital stay were 43.36 and 100.48 hours, respectively. Patients received an average of 87 units of insulin aspart prior to initial of basal insulin, which occurred at a mean of 19.85 hours after ED admission. Six patients experience Continue reading >>
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Diabetic Ketoacidosis Causes, Symptoms, Treatment, And Complications
Diabetic ketoacidosis definition and facts Diabetic ketoacidosis is a life-threatening complication of type 1 diabetes (though rare, it can occur in people with type 2 diabetes) that occurs when the body produces high levels of ketones due to lack of insulin. Diabetic ketoacidosis occurs when the body cannot produce enough insulin. The signs and symptoms of diabetic ketoacidosis include Risk factors for diabetic ketoacidosis are type 1 diabetes, and missing insulin doses frequently, or being exposed to a stressor requiring higher insulin doses (infection, etc). Diabetic ketoacidosis is diagnosed by an elevated blood sugar (glucose) level, elevated blood ketones and acidity of the blood (acidosis). The treatment for diabetic ketoacidosis is insulin, fluids and electrolyte therapy. Diabetic ketoacidosis can be prevented by taking insulin as prescribed and monitoring glucose and ketone levels. The prognosis for a person with diabetic ketoacidosis depends on the severity of the disease and the other underlying medical conditions. Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is a severe and life-threatening complication of diabetes. Diabetic ketoacidosis occurs when the cells in our body do not receive the sugar (glucose) they need for energy. This happens while there is plenty of glucose in the bloodstream, but not enough insulin to help convert glucose for use in the cells. The body recognizes this and starts breaking down muscle and fat for energy. This breakdown produces ketones (also called fatty acids), which cause an imbalance in our electrolyte system leading to the ketoacidosis (a metabolic acidosis). The sugar that cannot be used because of the lack of insulin stays in the bloodstream (rather than going into the cell and provide energy). The kidneys filter some of the glucose (suga Continue reading >>
Management Of Diabetic Ketoacidosis And Other Hyperglycemic Emergencies
Understand the management of patients with diabetic ketoacidosis and other hyperglycemic emergencies. The acute onset of hyperglycemia with attendant metabolic derangements is a common presentation in all forms of diabetes mellitus. The most current data from the National Diabetes Surveillance Program of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimate that during 2005-2006, at least 120,000 hospital discharges for diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) occurred in the United States,(1) with an unknown number of discharges related to hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS). The clinical presentations of DKA and HHS can overlap, but they are usually separately characterized by the presence of ketoacidosis and the degree of hyperglycemia and hyperosmolarity, though HHS will occasionally have some mild degree of ketosis. DKA is defined by a plasma glucose level >250 mg/dL, arterial pH <7.3, the presence of serum ketones, a serum bicarbonate measure <18 mEq/L, and a high anion gap metabolic acidosis. The level of normal anion gap may vary slightly by individual institutional standards. The anion gap also needs to be corrected in the presence of hypoalbuminemia, a common condition in the critically ill. Adjusted anion gap = observed anion gap + 0.25 * ([normal albumin]-[observed albumin]), where the given albumin concentrations are in g/L; if given in g/dL, the correction factor is 2.5.(3) HHS is defined by a plasma glucose level >600 mg/dL, with an effective serum osmolality >320 mOsm/kg. HHS was originally named hyperosmolar hyperglycemic nonketotic coma; however, this name was changed because relatively few patients exhibit coma-like symptoms. Effective serum osmolality = 2*([Na] + [K]) + glucose (mg/dL)/18.(2) Urea is freely diffusible across cell membranes, thus it will Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis
Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) is a potentially life-threatening complication of diabetes mellitus.[1] Signs and symptoms may include vomiting, abdominal pain, deep gasping breathing, increased urination, weakness, confusion, and occasionally loss of consciousness.[1] A person's breath may develop a specific smell.[1] Onset of symptoms is usually rapid.[1] In some cases people may not realize they previously had diabetes.[1] DKA happens most often in those with type 1 diabetes, but can also occur in those with other types of diabetes under certain circumstances.[1] Triggers may include infection, not taking insulin correctly, stroke, and certain medications such as steroids.[1] DKA results from a shortage of insulin; in response the body switches to burning fatty acids which produces acidic ketone bodies.[3] DKA is typically diagnosed when testing finds high blood sugar, low blood pH, and ketoacids in either the blood or urine.[1] The primary treatment of DKA is with intravenous fluids and insulin.[1] Depending on the severity, insulin may be given intravenously or by injection under the skin.[3] Usually potassium is also needed to prevent the development of low blood potassium.[1] Throughout treatment blood sugar and potassium levels should be regularly checked.[1] Antibiotics may be required in those with an underlying infection.[6] In those with severely low blood pH, sodium bicarbonate may be given; however, its use is of unclear benefit and typically not recommended.[1][6] Rates of DKA vary around the world.[5] In the United Kingdom, about 4% of people with type 1 diabetes develop DKA each year, while in Malaysia the condition affects about 25% a year.[1][5] DKA was first described in 1886 and, until the introduction of insulin therapy in the 1920s, it was almost univ Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis And Hyperosmolar Hyperglycemic State In Adults: Treatment
INTRODUCTION Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS, also known as hyperosmotic hyperglycemic nonketotic state [HHNK]) are two of the most serious acute complications of diabetes. They are part of the spectrum of hyperglycemia, and each represents an extreme in the spectrum. The treatment of DKA and HHS in adults will be reviewed here. The epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical features, evaluation, and diagnosis of these disorders are discussed separately. DKA in children is also reviewed separately. (See "Diabetic ketoacidosis and hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state in adults: Epidemiology and pathogenesis".) (See "Diabetic ketoacidosis and hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state in adults: Clinical features, evaluation, and diagnosis".) Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosistreatment & Management
Diabetic KetoacidosisTreatment & Management Author: Osama Hamdy, MD, PhD; Chief Editor: Romesh Khardori, MD, PhD, FACP more... Managing diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) in an intensive care unit during the first 24-48 hours always is advisable. When treating patients with DKA, the following points must be considered and closely monitored: Correction of fluid loss with intravenous fluids Correction of electrolyte disturbances, particularly potassium loss Treatment of concurrent infection, if present It is essential to maintain extreme vigilance for any concomitant process, such as infection, cerebrovascular accident, myocardial infarction, sepsis, or deep venous thrombosis . It is important to pay close attention to the correction of fluid and electrolyte loss during the first hour of treatment. This always should be followed by gradual correction of hyperglycemia and acidosis. Correction of fluid loss makes the clinical picture clearer and may be sufficient to correct acidosis. The presence of even mild signs of dehydration indicates that at least 3 L of fluid has already been lost. Patients usually are not discharged from the hospital unless they have been able to switch back to their daily insulin regimen without a recurrence of ketosis. When the condition is stable, pH exceeds 7.3, and bicarbonate is greater than 18 mEq/L, the patient is allowed to eat a meal preceded by a subcutaneous (SC) dose of regular insulin. Insulin infusion can be discontinued 30 minutes later. If the patient is still nauseated and cannot eat, dextrose infusion should be continued and regular or ultrashort-acting insulin should be administered SC every 4 hours, according to blood glucose level, while trying to maintain blood glucose values at 100-180 mg/dL. The 2011 JBDS guideline recommends the Continue reading >>
Diabetic Ketoacidosis In Pregnancy
Diagnosis of DKA: � Initial STAT labs include • CBC with diff • Serum electrolytes • BUN • Creatinine • Glucose • Arterial blood gases • Bicarbonate • Urinalysis • Lactate • Serum ketones • Calculation of the Anion Gap � serum anion gap = serum sodium – (serum chloride + bicarbonate) • Electrocardiogram Treatment Protocol for Diabetic Ketoacidosis Reviewed 5/2/2017 2 Updated 05/02/17 DKA Diagnostic Criteria: � Blood glucose >250 mg/dl � Arterial pH <7.3 � Bicarbonate ≤18 mEq/l � Anion Gap Acidosis � Moderate ketonuria or ketonemia 1. Start IV fluids (1 L of 0.9% NaCl per hr initially) 2. If serum K+ is <3.3 mEq/L hold insulin � Give 40 mEq/h until K ≥ 3.3 mEq/L 3. Initiate DKA Order Set Phase I (*In PREGNANCY utilize OB DKA order set) 4. Start insulin 0.14 units/kg/hr IV infusion (calculate dose) RN will titrate per DKA protocol Insulin Potassium Bicarbonate IVF Look for the Cause - Infection/Inflammation (PNA, UTI, pancreatitis, cholecystitis) - Ischemia/Infarction (myocardial, cerebral, gut) - Intoxication (EtOH, drugs) - Iatrogenic (drugs, lack of insulin) - Insulin deficiency - Pregnancy DKA/HHS Pathway Phase 1 (Adult) Approved by Diabetes Steering Committee, MMC, 2015, Revised DKA Workgroup 1_2016 Initiate and continue insulin gtt until serum glucose reaches 250 mg/dl. RN will titrate per protocol to achieve target. When sugar < 250 mg/dl proceed to DKA Phase II *In PREGNANCY when sugar <200 proceed to OB DKA Phase II *PREGNANCY � Utilize OB DKA order set Phase 1 � When glucose reaches 200mg/dL, Initiate OB DKA Phase 2 � Glucose goals 100-150mg/dL OB DKA Phase 2 Determine hydration status Hypovolemic shock Mild hypotensio Continue reading >>
Hyperglycemic Crises In Adult Patients With Diabetes
Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) and the hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS) are the two most serious acute metabolic complications of diabetes. DKA is responsible for more than 500,000 hospital days per year (1,2) at an estimated annual direct medical expense and indirect cost of 2.4 billion USD (2,3). Table 1 outlines the diagnostic criteria for DKA and HHS. The triad of uncontrolled hyperglycemia, metabolic acidosis, and increased total body ketone concentration characterizes DKA. HHS is characterized by severe hyperglycemia, hyperosmolality, and dehydration in the absence of significant ketoacidosis. These metabolic derangements result from the combination of absolute or relative insulin deficiency and an increase in counterregulatory hormones (glucagon, catecholamines, cortisol, and growth hormone). Most patients with DKA have autoimmune type 1 diabetes; however, patients with type 2 diabetes are also at risk during the catabolic stress of acute illness such as trauma, surgery, or infections. This consensus statement will outline precipitating factors and recommendations for the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of DKA and HHS in adult subjects. It is based on a previous technical review (4) and more recently published peer-reviewed articles since 2001, which should be consulted for further information. Recent epidemiological studies indicate that hospitalizations for DKA in the U.S. are increasing. In the decade from 1996 to 2006, there was a 35% increase in the number of cases, with a total of 136,510 cases with a primary diagnosis of DKA in 2006—a rate of increase perhaps more rapid than the overall increase in the diagnosis of diabetes (1). Most patients with DKA were between the ages of 18 and 44 years (56%) and 45 and 65 years (24%), with only 18% of patie Continue reading >>
