Metabolic Acidosis Workup
Approach Considerations Often the first clue to metabolic acidosis is a decreased serum HCO3- concentration observed when serum electrolytes are measured. Remember, however, that a decreased serum [HCO3-] level can be observed as a compensatory response to respiratory alkalosis. An [HCO3-] level of less than 15 mEq/L, however, almost always is due, at least in part, to metabolic acidosis. The only definitive way to diagnose metabolic acidosis is by simultaneous measurement of serum electrolytes and arterial blood gases (ABGs), which shows pH and PaCO2 to be low; calculated HCO3- also is low. (For more information, see Metabolic Alkalosis.) A low serum HCO3- and a pH of less than 7.40 upon ABG analysis confirm metabolic acidosis. Go to Pediatric Metabolic Acidosis and Emergent Management of Metabolic Acidosis for complete information on these topics. Continue reading >>
Common Laboratory (lab) Values - Abgs
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Laboratory VALUES Home Page Arterial Blood Gases Arterial blood gas analysis provides information on the following: 1] Oxygenation of blood through gas exchange in the lungs. 2] Carbon dioxide (CO2) elimination through respiration. 3] Acid-base balance or imbalance in extra-cellular fluid (ECF). Normal Blood Gases Arterial Venous pH 7.35 - 7.45 7.32 - 7.42 Not a gas, but a measurement of acidity or alkalinity, based on the hydrogen (H+) ions present. The pH of a solution is equal to the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration in that solution: pH = - log [H+]. PaO2 80 to 100 mm Hg. 28 - 48 mm Hg The partial pressure of oxygen that is dissolved in arterial blood. New Born – Acceptable range 40-70 mm Hg. Elderly: Subtract 1 mm Hg from the minimal 80 mm Hg level for every year over 60 years of age: 80 - (age- 60) (Note: up to age 90) HCO3 22 to 26 mEq/liter (21–28 mEq/L) 19 to 25 mEq/liter The calculated value of the amount of bicarbonate in the bloodstream. Not a blood gas but the anion of carbonic acid. PaCO2 35-45 mm Hg 38-52 mm Hg The amount of carbon dioxide dissolved in arterial blood. Measured. Partial pressure of arterial CO2. (Note: Large A= alveolor CO2). CO2 is called a “volatile acid” because it can combine reversibly with H2O to yield a strongly acidic H+ ion and a weak basic bicarbonate ion (HCO3 -) according to the following equation: CO2 + H2O <--- --> H+ + HCO3 B.E. –2 to +2 mEq/liter Other sources: normal reference range is between -5 to +3. The base excess indicates the amount of excess or insufficient level of bicarbonate in the system. (A negative base excess indicates a base deficit in the blood.) A negative base excess is equivalent to an acid excess. A value outside of the normal r Continue reading >>
Arterial Blood Gas (abg) Analyzer
This analyzer should not substitute for clinical context. Sodium and chloride are required for anion gap calculation. While the analyzer can often help with analysis, the history of the patient is critical for accurate interpretation. NOTE: Normal albumin levels are typically 4 g/dL in US units and 40 g/L in SI units. A venous blood gas often correlates well with arterial blood gas findings (except for PaO2) unless values are extremely abnormal, and can often be used successfully as a screening tool. This tool, developed by Jonathan Chen, MD first determines the primary process by looking at the pH and the PCO2. It then calculates compensations to determine chronicity, compensatory, and co-existing acid-base disturbances. Diabetic Ketoacidosis (check serum ketones) Propylene Glycol (in BZD drips) or Paraldehydes Oxoporin (reflects fatty liver damage from glutathione consumption, e.g. acetaminophen toxicity) Renal Tubular Acidosis (Type 1 Distal or Type 2 Proximal) Jonathan Chen, MD, PhD is a research fellow in medical informatics, based at the Veteran Affairs Hospital in Palo Alto and Stanford University. He completed the Stanford Internal Medicine residency program and was in the Medical Scientist Training Program (MSTP) and Biomedical Informatics Training (BIT) program at UC Irvine. Dr. Chen co-founded Reaction Explorer, LLC, which offers a unique system for teaching complex problem-solving in organic chemistry with the aid of expert system technology. To view Dr. Jonathan Chen's publications, visit PubMed Continue reading >>
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Interpretation Of Arterial Blood Gas
Go to: Introduction Arterial blood gas (ABG) analysis is an essential part of diagnosing and managing a patient’s oxygenation status and acid–base balance. The usefulness of this diagnostic tool is dependent on being able to correctly interpret the results. Disorders of acid–base balance can create complications in many disease states, and occasionally the abnormality may be so severe so as to become a life-threatening risk factor. A thorough understanding of acid–base balance is mandatory for any physician, and intensivist, and the anesthesiologist is no exception. The three widely used approaches to acid–base physiology are the HCO3- (in the context of pCO2), standard base excess (SBE), and strong ion difference (SID). It has been more than 20 years since the Stewart’s concept of SID was introduced, which is defined as the absolute difference between completely dissociated anions and cations. According to the principle of electrical neutrality, this difference is balanced by the weak acids and CO2. The SID is defined in terms of weak acids and CO2 subsequently has been re-designated as effective SID (SIDe) which is identical to “buffer base.” Similarly, Stewart’s original term for total weak acid concentration (ATOT) is now defined as the dissociated (A-) plus undissociated (AH) weak acid forms. This is familiarly known as anion gap (AG), when normal concentration is actually caused by A-. Thus all the three methods yield virtually identical results when they are used to quantify acid–base status of a given blood sample.[1] Continue reading >>
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9.3 Bedside Rules For Assessment Of Compensation
The method of assessing acid-base disorders discussed here uses a set of six rules which are used primarily to assess the magnitude of the patients compensatory response. These rules are now widely known and are soundly based experimentally. These rules are used at Step 4 of the method of Systematic Acid-Base Diagnosis outlined in Section 9.2.- (You should read section 9.1 & 9.2 before this section.) These rules are called 'bedside rules' because that can be used at the patient's bedside to assist in the assessment of the acid-base results. The rules should preferably be committed to memory - with practice this is not difficult. A full assessment of blood-gas results must be based on a clinical knowledge of the individual patient from whom they were obtained and an understanding of the pathophysiology of the clinical conditions underlying the acid-base disorder. Do not interpret the blood-gas results as an intellectual exercise in itself. It is one part of the overall process of assessing and managing the patient. A set of blood-gas and electrolyte results should NOT be interpreted without these initial clinical details. They cannot be understood fully without knowledge of the condition being diagnosed. Diagnosing a metabolic acidosis, for example, is by itself, often of little clinical use. What is really required is a more specific diagnosis of the cause of the metabolic acidosis (eg diabetic ketoacidosis, acute renal failure, lactic acidosis) and to initiate appropriate management. The acid-base analysis must be interpreted and managed in the context of the overall clinical picture. The snapshot problem: Are the results 'current'? Remember also that a set of blood gas results provides a snapshot at a particular point in time and the situation may have changed since Continue reading >>
Intro To Arterial Blood Gases, Part 2
Arterial Blood Gas Analysis, Part 2 Introduction Acute vs. Chronic Respiratory Disturbances Primary Metabolic Disturbances Anion Gap Mixed Disorders Compensatory Mechanisms Steps in ABG Analysis, Part II Summary Compensatory Mechanisms Compensation refers to the body's natural mechanisms of counteracting a primary acid-base disorder in an attempt to maintain homeostasis. As you learned in Acute vs. Chronic Respiratory Disturbances, the kidneys can compensate for chronic respiratory disorders by either holding on to or dumping bicarbonate. With Chronic respiratory acidosis: Chronic respiratory alkalosis: the kidneys hold on to bicarbonate the kidneys dump bicarbonate With primary metabolic disturbances, the respiratory system compensates for the acid-base disorder. The lungs can either blow off excess acid (via CO2) to compensate for metabolic acidosis, or to a lesser extent, hold on to acid (via CO2) to compensate for metabolic alkalosis. With Metabolic acidosis: Metabolic alkalosis: ventilation increases to blow off CO2 ventilation decreases to hold on to CO2 The body's response to metabolic acidosis is predictable. With metabolic acidosis, respiration will increase to blow off CO2, thereby decreasing the amount of acid in the blood. Recall that with metabolic acidosis, central chemoreceptors are triggered by the low pH and increase the drive to breathe. For now, it is only important to learn (qualitatively) that there is a predictable compensatory response to metabolic acidosis. Later, during your 3rd or 4th year rotations, you might learn how to (quantitatively) determine if the compensatory response to metabolic acidosis is appropriate by using the Winter's Formula. The body's response to metabolic alkalosis is not as complete. This is because we would need to hypov Continue reading >>
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Abg’s—it’s All In The Family
By Cyndi Cramer, BA, RN, OCN, PCRN RealNurseEd.com 3.0 Contact Hour Self Learning Module Objectives: Identify the components of the ABG and their normal ranges Interpret ABG values and determine the acid base abnormality given Identify the major causes of acid base abnormalities Describe symptoms associated with acid base abnormalities Describe interventions to correct acid base abnormalities Identify the acceptable O2 level per ABG and Pulse Oximetry Identify four causes of low PaO2 The Respiratory System (Acid); CO2 is a volatile acid If you increase your respiratory rate (hyperventilation) you "blow off" CO2 (acid) therefore decreasing your CO2 acid—giving you ALKLAOSIS If you decrease your respiratory rate (hypoventilation) you retain CO2 (acid) therefore increasing your CO2 (acid)—giving you ACIDOSIS The Renal System (Base); the kidneys rid the body of the nonvolatile acids H+ (hydrogen ions) and maintain a constant bicarb (HCO3). Bicarbonate is the body’s base You have Acidosis when you have excess H+ and decreased HCO3- causing a decrease in pH. The Kidneys try to adjust for this by excreting H+ and retaining HCO3- base. The Respiratory System will try to compensate by increasing ventilation to blow off CO2 (acid) and therefore decrease the Acidosis. You have Alkalosis when H+ decreases and you have excess (or increased) HCO3- base. The kidneys excrete HCO3- (base) and retain H+ to compensate. The respiratory system tries to compensate with hypoventilation to retain CO2 (acid) To decrease the alkalosis Compensation The respiratory system can effect a change in 15-30 minutes The renal system takes several hours to days to have an effect. RESPIRATORY ACIDOSIS: pH < 7.35 (Normal: 7.35 - 7.45) CO2 > 45 (Normal: 35 – 45) 1. Causes: Hypoventilation a. Depressio Continue reading >>
American Thoracic Society - Interpretation Of Arterial Blood Gases (abgs)
Interpretation of Arterial Blood Gases (ABGs) Chief, Section of Pulmonary, Critical Care & Sleep Medicine Bridgeport Hospital-Yale New Haven Health Assistant Clinical Professor, Yale University School of Medicine (Section of Pulmonary & Critical Care Medicine) Interpreting an arterial blood gas (ABG) is a crucial skill for physicians, nurses, respiratory therapists, and other health care personnel. ABG interpretation is especially important in critically ill patients. The following six-step process helps ensure a complete interpretation of every ABG. In addition, you will find tables that list commonly encountered acid-base disorders. Many methods exist to guide the interpretation of the ABG. This discussion does not include some methods, such as analysis of base excess or Stewarts strong ion difference. A summary of these techniques can be found in some of the suggested articles. It is unclear whether these alternate methods offer clinically important advantages over the presented approach, which is based on the anion gap. Step 1: Assess the internal consistency of the values using the Henderseon-Hasselbach equation: If the pH and the [H+] are inconsistent, the ABG is probably not valid. Step 2: Is there alkalemia or acidemia present? Remember: an acidosis or alkalosis may be present even if the pH is in the normal range (7.35 7.45) You will need to check the PaCO2, HCO3- and anion gap Step 3: Is the disturbance respiratory or metabolic? What is the relationship between the direction of change in the pH and the direction of change in the PaCO2? In primary respiratory disorders, the pH and PaCO2 change in opposite directions; in metabolic disorders the pH and PaCO2 change in the same direction. Decrease in [HCO3-] = 5( PaCO2/10) to 7( PaCO2/10) If the observed compensa Continue reading >>
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8-step Guide To Abg Analysis: Tic-tac-toe Method
An arterial blood gas (ABG) is a blood test that measures the acidity (pH) and the levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood . Blood for an ABG test is taken from an artery whereas most other blood tests are done on a sample of blood taken from a vein. This test is done to monitor several conditions that can cause serious health complications especially to critically ill individuals. Every day, a lot of nursing and medical students assigned in acute areas encounter ABG results, which they may not necessarily be able to interpret with its knotty aspect. They struggle over the interpretation of its measurements, but they are not especially complicated nor difficult if you understand the basic physiology and have a step by step process to analyze and interpret them. There may be various tips and strategies to guide you, from mnemonics, to charts, to lectures, to practice, but this article will tell you how to interpret ABGs in the easiest possible way. And once you have finished reading this, youll be doing actual ABG analysis in the NCLEX with fun and excitement! Here are the steps: Know the normal and abnormal ABG values when you review the lab reports. Theyre fairly easy to remember: for pH, the normal value is 7.35 to 7.45; 35-45 for paCO2; and 22-26 for HCO3. Remember also this diagram and note that paCO2 is intentionallyinverted for the purpose of this method. 2. Determine if pH is under acidosis or alkalosis Next thing to do is to determine the acidity or alkalinity of the blood through the value of pH. The pH level of a healthy human should be between 7.35 to 7.45. The human body is constantly striving to keep pH in balance. 3. Determine if acid-base is respiratory or metabolic Next thing you need to determine is whether the acid base is Respiratory or Meta Continue reading >>
Abg Interpreter
pH CO2 HCO3 Result appears in here. Normal Arterial Blood Gas Values pH 7.35-7.45 PaCO2 35-45 mm Hg PaO2 80-95 mm Hg HCO3 22-26 mEq/L O2 Saturation 95-99% BE +/- 1 Four-Step Guide to ABG Analysis Is the pH normal, acidotic or alkalotic? Are the pCO2 or HCO3 abnormal? Which one appears to influence the pH? If both the pCO2 and HCO3 are abnormal, the one which deviates most from the norm is most likely causing an abnormal pH. Check the pO2. Is the patient hypoxic? I used Swearingen's handbook (1990) to base the results of this calculator. The book makes the distinction between acute and chronic disorders based on symptoms from identical ABGs. This calculator only differentiates between acute (pH abnormal) and compensated (pH normal). Compensation can be seen when both the PCO2 and HCO3 rise or fall together to maintain a normal pH. Part compensation occurs when the PCO2 and HCO3 rise or fall together but the pH remains abnormal. This indicates a compensatory mechanism attempted to restore a normal pH. I have not put exact limits into the calculator. For example, it will perceive respiratory acidosis as any pH < 7.35 and any CO2 > 45 (i.e. a pH of 1 and CO2 of 1000). These results do not naturally occur. pH PaCO2 HCO3 Respiratory Acidosis Acute < 7.35 > 45 Normal Partly Compensated < 7.35 > 45 > 26 Compensated Normal > 45 > 26 Respiratory Alkalosis Acute > 7.45 < 35 Normal Partly Compensated > 7.45 < 35 < 22 Compensated Normal < 35 < 22 Metabolic Acidosis Acute < 7.35 Normal < 22 Partly Compensated < 7.35 < 35 < 22 Compensated Normal < 35 < 22 Metabolic Alkalosis Acute > 7.45 Normal > 26 Partly Compensated > 7.45 > 45 > 26 Compensated Normal > 45 > 26 Mixed Disorders It's possible to have more than one disorder influencing blood gas values. For example ABG's with an alkale Continue reading >>
Acid Base Disorders
Arterial blood gas analysis is used to determine the adequacy of oxygenation and ventilation, assess respiratory function and determine the acid–base balance. These data provide information regarding potential primary and compensatory processes that affect the body’s acid–base buffering system. Interpret the ABGs in a stepwise manner: Determine the adequacy of oxygenation (PaO2) Normal range: 80–100 mmHg (10.6–13.3 kPa) Determine pH status Normal pH range: 7.35–7.45 (H+ 35–45 nmol/L) pH <7.35: Acidosis is an abnormal process that increases the serum hydrogen ion concentration, lowers the pH and results in acidaemia. pH >7.45: Alkalosis is an abnormal process that decreases the hydrogen ion concentration and results in alkalaemia. Determine the respiratory component (PaCO2) Primary respiratory acidosis (hypoventilation) if pH <7.35 and HCO3– normal. Normal range: PaCO2 35–45 mmHg (4.7–6.0 kPa) PaCO2 >45 mmHg (> 6.0 kPa): Respiratory compensation for metabolic alkalosis if pH >7.45 and HCO3– (increased). PaCO2 <35 mmHg (4.7 kPa): Primary respiratory alkalosis (hyperventilation) if pH >7.45 and HCO3– normal. Respiratory compensation for metabolic acidosis if pH <7.35 and HCO3– (decreased). Determine the metabolic component (HCO3–) Normal HCO3– range 22–26 mmol/L HCO3 <22 mmol/L: Primary metabolic acidosis if pH <7.35. Renal compensation for respiratory alkalosis if pH >7.45. HCO3 >26 mmol/L: Primary metabolic alkalosis if pH >7.45. Renal compensation for respiratory acidosis if pH <7.35. Additional definitions Osmolar Gap Use: Screening test for detecting abnormal low MW solutes (e.g. ethanol, methanol & ethylene glycol [Reference]) An elevated osmolar gap (>10) provides indirect evidence for the presence of an abnormal solute which is prese Continue reading >>
Abg Interpretation
Arterial blood gas (ABG) interpretation is something many medical students find difficult to grasp (we’ve been there). We’ve created this guide, which aims to provide a structured approach to ABG interpretation whilst also increasing your understanding of each results relevance. The real value of an ABG comes from its ability to provide a near immediate reflection of the physiology of your patient, allowing you to recognise and treat pathology more rapidly. To see how to perform an arterial blood gas check out our guide here. If you want to put your ABG interpretation skills to the test, check out our ABG quiz here. Normal ranges pH: 7.35 – 7.45 PaCO2: 4.7-6.0 kPa PaO2: 11-13 kPa HCO3-: 22-26 mEg/L Base excess: -2 to +2 mmol/L Patient’s clinical condition Before getting stuck into the details of the analysis, it’s important to look at the patient’s current clinical status, as this provides essential context to the ABG result. Below are a few examples to demonstrate how important context is when interpreting an ABG. A normal PaO2 in a patient on high flow oxygen – this is abnormal as you would expect the patient to have a PaO2 well above the normal range with this level of oxygen therapy A normal PaCO2 in a hypoxic asthmatic patient – a sign they are tiring and need ITU intervention A very low PaO2 in a patient who looks completely well, is not short of breath and has normal O2 saturations – likely a venous sample Oxygenation (PaO2) Your first question when looking at the ABG should be “Is this patient hypoxic?” (because this will kill them long before anything else does). PaO2 should be >10 kPa on air in a healthy patient If the patient is receiving oxygen therapy their PaO2 should be approximately 10kPa less than the % inspired concentration / FiO Continue reading >>
Partially Compensated Vs. Fully Compensated Abgs Practice
This is an NCLEX practice question on partially compensated vs fully compensated ABGs. This question provides a scenario about arterial blood gas results. As the nurse, you must determine if this is a respiratory or metabolic problem, alkalosis or acidosis along with if it is uncompensated, partially or fully compensated based on the results. This question is one of the many questions we will be practicing in our new series called “Weekly NCLEX Question”. So, every week be sure to tune into our YouTube Channel for the NCLEX Question of the Week. More NCLEX Weekly Practice Questions. To solve ABGs problems, I like to use the Tic Tac Toe method. If you are not familiar with this method, please watch my video on how to solve arterial blood gas problems with this method. The Tic Tac Toe method makes solving ABG problems so EASY. However, if the ABG values are partially or fully compensated you must take it a step further by analyzing the values further with this method, which is the purpose of this review. My goal is to show you how to use the Tic Tac Toe method for partially and fully compensated interpretation. So let’s begin: NCLEX Practice Questions on Partially vs. Fully Compensated ABGs Problem 1 A patient has the following arterial blood gas results: blood pH 7.43, PaCO2 28 mmHg, and HCO3 18 mEq/L. This is known as: A. Partially compensated respiratory alkalosis B. Fully compensated metabolic acidosis C. Partially compensated respiratory acidosis D. Fully compensated respiratory alkalosis The first thing you want to do is to pull from your memory bank the normal values for arterial blood gases. Here they are: <-Acid Base-> pH: 7.35-7.45 (less than 7.35 ACID & greater than 7.45 ALKALOTIC) PaCO2: 45-35 (greater than 45 ACID & less than 35 ALKALOTIC)** HCO3: 22-26 Continue reading >>
Uncompensated, Partially Compensated, Or Combined Abg Problems
Arterial Blood Gas (ABG) analysis requires in-depth expertise. If the results are not understood right, or are wrongly interpreted, it can result in wrong diagnosis and end up in an inappropriate management of the patient. ABG analysis is carried out when the patient is dealing with the following conditions: • Breathing problems • Lung diseases (asthma, cystic fibrosis, COPD) • Heart failure • Kidney failure ABG reports help in answering the following questions: 1. Is there acidosis or alkalosis? 2. If acidosis is present, whether it is in an uncompensated state, partially compensated state, or in fully compensated state? 3. Whether acidosis is respiratory or metabolic? ABG reports provide the following descriptions: PaCO2 (partial pressure of dissolved CO2 in the blood) and PaO2 (partial pressure of dissolved O2 in the blood) describe the efficiency of exchange of gas in the alveolar level into the blood. Any change in these levels causes changes in the pH. HCO3 (bicarbonate in the blood) maintains the pH of the blood within normal range by compensatory mechanisms, which is either by retaining or increasing HCO3 excretion by the kidney. When PaCO2 increases, HCO3 decreases to compensate the pH. The following table summarizes the changes: ABG can be interpreted using the following analysis points: Finding acidosis or alkalosis: • If pH is more it is acidosis, if pH is less it is alkalosis. Finding compensated, partially compensated, or uncompensated ABG problems: • When PaCO2 is high, but pH is normal instead of being acidic, and if HCO3 levels are also increased, then it means that the compensatory mechanism has retained more HCO3 to maintain the pH. • When PaCO2 and HCO3 values are high but pH is acidic, then it indicates partial compensation. It means t Continue reading >>
Arterial Blood Gas Analysis: Example Set 2
Arterial Blood Gas Analysis: Example Set 2 You are working in the emergency room when the paramedics bring in a 45 year-old man who was found down in Pioneer Square. He is somnolent but arouseable. He has emesis on his shirt. He is hypotensive and tachycardic. Labs are drawn and reveal the following: Step 2: The PCO2 is low (respiratory alkalosis) and the bicarbonate is low (metabolic acidosis). Therefore, the metabolic acidosis is the primary process. Step 3: The serum anion gap is elevated at 29. There is, therefore, an elevated anion gap acidosis. Step 4: The respiratory alkalosis is the compensatory process for the metabolic acidosis. The Delta Gap = Measured SAG Normal SAG = 29 12 = 17 Calculate the Delta Delta: Delta Gap + measured bicarbonate = 17 + 12 = 29 Since the Delta Delta is above a normal bicarbonate level, there is a concurrent metabolic alkalosis at work. The patient has a primary elevated anion gap acidosis with respiratory compensation (which is not complete) and a concurrent metabolic alkalosis. You would need to sort through the differential diagnosis for an elevated anion gap acidosis to identify the cause of that problem. The metabolic alkalosis is likely due to vomiting. A 60 year-old man was recently in the hospital for treatment of aspiration pneumonia for which he as treated with levofloxacin and clindamycin. One week later, he presents to the ER with severe diarrhea, abdominal pain and hypotension. Step 2: The PCO2 is low (respiratory alkalosis) and the bicarbonate is low (metabolic acidosis). Therefore, the metabolic acidosis is the primary process. Step 3: The serum anion gap is elevated at 20. There is, therefore, an elevated anion gap acidosis. Step 4: The respiratory alkalosis is the compensatory process for the metabolic acidosis. The Continue reading >>
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