The Pancreas And Its Functions
The pancreas is an organ located in the abdomen. It plays an essential role in converting the food we eat into fuel for the body's cells. The pancreas has two main functions: an exocrine function that helps in digestion and an endocrine function that regulates blood sugar. Location of the Pancreas The pancreas is located behind the stomach in the upper left abdomen. It is surrounded by other organs including the small intestine, liver, and spleen. It is spongy, about six to ten inches long, and is shaped like a flat pear or a fish extended horizontally across the abdomen. The wide part, called the head of the pancreas, is positioned toward the center of the abdomen. The head of the pancreas is located at the juncture where the stomach meets the first part of the small intestine. This is where the stomach empties partially digested food into the intestine, and the pancreas releases digestive enzymes into these contents. The central section of the pancreas is called the neck or body. The thin end is called the tail and extends to the left side. Several major blood vessels surround the pancreas, the superior mesenteric artery, the superior mesenteric vein, the portal vein and the celiac axis, supplying blood to the pancreas and other abdominal organs. Almost all of the pancreas (95%) consists of exocrine tissue that produces pancreatic enzymes for digestion. The remaining tissue consists of endocrine cells called islets of Langerhans. These clusters of cells look like grapes and produce hormones that regulate blood sugar and regulate pancreatic secretions. Functions of the Pancreas A healthy pancreas produces the correct chemicals in the proper quantities, at the right times, to digest the foods we eat. The pancreas contains exocrine glands that produce enzymes important t Continue reading >>
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Pancreas
For other uses, see Pancreas (disambiguation). This article uses anatomical terminology; for an overview, see Anatomical terminology. The pancreas /ˈpæŋkriəs/ is a glandular organ in the digestive system and endocrine system of vertebrates. In humans, it is located in the abdominal cavity behind the stomach. It is an endocrine gland producing several important hormones, including insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide, all of which circulate in the blood.[2] The pancreas is also a digestive organ, secreting pancreatic juice containing bicarbonate to neutralize acidity of chyme moving in from the stomach, as well as digestive enzymes that assist digestion and absorption of nutrients in the small intestine. These enzymes help to further break down the carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids in the chyme. The pancreas is known as a mixed gland. Structure[edit] 1. Bile ducts: 2. Intrahepatic bile ducts, 3. Left and right hepatic ducts, 4. Common hepatic duct, 5. Cystic duct, 6. Common bile duct, 7. Ampulla of Vater, 8. Major duodenal papilla 9. Gallbladder, 10–11. Right and left lobes of liver. 12. Spleen. 13. Esophagus. 14. Stomach. 15. Pancreas: 16. Accessory pancreatic duct, 17. Pancreatic duct. 18. Small intestine: 19. Duodenum, 20. Jejunum 21–22. Right and left kidneys. The front border of the liver has been lifted up (brown arrow).[3] The pancreas is an endocrine and digestive organ that, in humans, lies in the upper left part of the abdomen. It is found behind the stomach.[4] The pancreas is about 15 cm (6 in) long.[5] Anatomically, the pancreas is divided into the head of pancreas, the neck of pancreas, the body of pancreas, and the tail of pancreas.[2] The head is surrounded by the duodenum in its concavity. The head surrounds two blood ves Continue reading >>
Pancreatic Hormones - Wikilectures
Pancreatic Hormones[ edit | edit source ] Pancreas is both exocrine and endocrine gland. The exocrinal part secretes pancreatic fluid into the duodenum after a meal. The endocrinal part secretes various types of hormones. These are produced by a specialized tissue in the pancreas and then released to the capillary system and reached the liver by the portal venous circulation. The specialized tissue is called islets of Langerhans . Islets of Langerhans represent approximately 1-2% of the pancreas. Three types of cells are regonized in these islets. A cells producing glucagon (25% of all islet cells). B cells producing insulin (60% of all islet cells). D cells producing somatostatin (10% of all islet cells). F cells producing panceratic polypeptide (5% of all islet cells). Islets of Langerhans play a crucial role in carbohydrate metabolism and so in a plasma glucose concentration. It involves: Glycolysis the anaerobic conversion of glucose to lactate. Occurs in the red blood cells, renal medulla and sceletal muscles. Glycogenesis the synthesis of glycogen from glucose. Glucose is stored ( in liver, muscle) in the form of glycogen and this serves to maintain a constant plasma glucose concentration. Glycogenolysis the breakdown of glycogen to glucose. Gluconeogenesis the production of glucose from non-sugar molecules (amino acids, lactate, glycerol) Lipolysis the breakdown of triacylglycerols into glycerol and free fatty acids. Lipogenesis the synthesis of triacylglycerols. Insulin is a peptide consisting of an -chain 21 amino acids long linked to a 30 amino this creates a bad fick bitxh acid -chain via two disulfide bridges. The precursor to insulin is preproinsulin, which contains a signal sequence that is further removed in the endoplasmic reticulum converting the precu Continue reading >>
Pancreatic Hormone | Biochemistry | Britannica.com
THIS IS A DIRECTORY PAGE. Britannica does not currently have an article on this topic. Learn about this topic in these articles: In pancreas: Anatomy and exocrine and endocrine functions vagus nerve and by the hormones secretin and cholecystokinin, which are produced in the intestinal mucosa. When food enters the duodenum, secretin and cholecystokinin are released into the bloodstream by secretory cells of the duodenum. When these hormones reach the pancreas, the pancreatic cells are stimulated to produce and release Continue reading >>
Hormones Of The Pancreas
Index to this page Beta Cells Diabetes Mellitus Type 1 Type 2 Inherited Forms of Diabetes Mellitus Amylin Alpha Cells Delta Cells Gamma Cells The bulk of the pancreas is an exocrine gland secreting pancreatic fluid into the duodenum after a meal. [Discussion] However, scattered through the pancreas are several hundred thousand clusters of cells called islets of Langerhans. The islets are endocrine tissue containing four types of cells. In order of abundance, they are the: beta cells, which secrete insulin and amylin; alpha cells, which secrete glucagon; delta cells, which secrete somatostatin, and gamma cells, which secrete pancreatic polypeptide. Beta Cells Insulin is a small protein consisting of an alpha chain of 21 amino acids linked by two disulfide (S—S) bridges to a beta chain of 30 amino acids. Beta cells have channels in their plasma membrane that serve as glucose detectors. Beta cells secrete insulin in response to a rising level of circulating glucose ("blood sugar"). Insulin affects many organs. It stimulates skeletal muscle fibers to take up glucose and convert it into glycogen; take up amino acids from the blood and convert them into protein. acts on liver cells stimulating them to take up glucose from the blood and convert it into glycogen while inhibiting production of the enzymes involved in breaking glycogen back down ("glycogenolysis") and inhibiting "gluconeogenesis"; that is, the conversion of fats and proteins into glucose. acts on fat (adipose) cells to stimulate the uptake of glucose and the synthesis of fat. acts on cells in the hypothalamus to reduce appetite. In each case, insulin triggers these effects by binding to the insulin receptor — a transmembrane protein embedded in the plasma membrane of the responding cells. Taken together, all Continue reading >>
Hormones - The Pancreas
Tweet The pancreas folds under the stomach, secretes the hormones insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin. About 70% of the pancreatic hormone-secreting cells are called beta cells and secrete insulin; another 22%, or so, are called alpha cells and secrete glucagon. The remaining gamma cells secrete somatostatin, also known as growth hormone inhibiting hormone (GHIH). The alpha, beta, and gamma cells comprise the islets of Langerhans which are scattered throughout the pancreas. Insulin and glucagon have reciprocal roles. Insulin promotes the storage of glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids, whereas, glucagon stimulates mobilization of these constituents from storage into the blood. Both are relatively short polypeptides. Insulin release is triggered by high blood glucose levels. It lowers blood sugar levels by binding a cell surface receptor and accelerating glucose transport into the cell where glucose is converted into glycogen. Insulin also inhibits the release of glucose by the liver in order to keep blood levels down. Increased blood levels of GH and ACTH also stimulate insulin secretion. Not all cells require insulin to store glucose, however. Brain, liver, kidney, intestinal, epithelium, and the pancreatic islets can take up glucose independently of insulin. Insulin excess can cause hypoglycemia leading to convulsions or coma, and insufficient levels of insulin can cause diabetes mellitus which can be fatal if left untreated. Diabetes mellitus is the most common endocrine disorder. Glucagon secretion is stimulated by decreased blood glucose levels, infection, cortisol, exercise, and large protein meals. GHIH, glucose, and insulin inhibit its secretion. Protein taken in through the digestive tract has more of a stimulatory effect on glucagon than does injected protein Continue reading >>
Endocrine Pancreas
This page outlines information on the pancreas. Several hormones participate in the regulation of carbohydrate metabolism. Four of them are secreted by the cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas: two, insulin and glucagon, with major actions on glucose metabolism and two, somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptide, with modulating actions on insulin and glucagon secretion. Other hormones affecting carbohydrate metabolism include: epinephrine, thyroid hormones, glucocorticoids, and growth hormone. Structure and Function of the Pancreas The pancreas lies inferior to the stomach, in a bend of the duodenum. It is both an endocrine and an exocrine gland. The exocrine functions are concerned with digestion. The endocrine function consists primarily of the secretion of the two major hormones, insulin and glucagon. Four cell types have been identified in the islets, each producing a different hormone with specific actions: * A cells produce glucagon; * B cells produce insulin; * D cells produce somatostatin; and * F or D1 cells produce pancreatic polypeptide. These hormones are all polypeptides. Insulin is secreted only by the B cells whereas the other hormones are also secreted by the gastrointestinal mucosa and somatostatin is also found in the brain. Both insulin and glucagon are important in the regulation of carbohydrate, protein and lipid metabolism: Insulin is an anabolic hormone, that is, it increases the storage of glucose, fatty acids and amino acids in cells and tissues. Glucagon is a catabolic hormone, that is, it mobilizes glucose, fatty acids and amino acids from stores into the blood. Somatostatin may regulate, locally, the secretion of the other pancreatic hormones; in brain (hypothalamus) and spinal cord it may act as a neurohormone and neurotransmitter Continue reading >>
Endocrine Health: Pancreas - Hormones Produced By The Pancreas
Pancreas - Hormones Produced by the Pancreas Your pancreas is a large elongated gland located behind your stomach. It is near the duodenumthe first part of your small intestine. The pancreas is considered as a part of the digestive system as well as the endocrine system . Its major function in digestive processes is to produce digestive enzymes, which help in breakdown of ingested food. As part of your endocrine system , your pancreas produces important hormones that help maintain normal levels of glucose (sugar) in your blood. Hormones produced by the pancreas include glucagon, insulin, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide. This pancreatic hormone helps to elevate your blood sugar levels. When levels of sugar in your blood declines, your pancreas produces glucagon, which stimulates the liver to produce more glucose. As a result, your blood glucose levels return to normal. Insulin helps to lower sugar levels in your blood. This important hormone aids in the transport of glucose into your different cells. Your pancreas in response to increasing blood glucose levels produces insulin. In addition, insulin helps in converting glucose into glycogen, which is stored in your liver for future use. The hormone somatostatin helps stop the release of either insulin and glucagon in your blood depending on your body needs. In addition, it slows down absorption of nutrients in your small intestine. This pancreatic hormone prevents secretion of somatostatin by your pancreas. Also, pancreatic polypeptide inhibits contraction of your gallbladder wall and secretion of digestive enzymes by your pancreas. Continue reading >>
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How Does The Pancreas Work?
The pancreas is 12 to 18 centimeters (about 4.7 to 7.1 inches) long and weighs about 70 to 100 grams. The pancreas is made up of a head, a body and a pointy tail. It is located in the upper abdomen behind the stomach. The organ has two major functions. It produces Hormones and enzymes are produced in two different groups of cells: Exocrine pancreas cells Over 99% of the exocrine pancreas cells produce digestive juices – about 1.5 to 2 liters per day. They are called exocrine ("secreting externally") because they secrete digestive juice "externally" into the small intestine. This clear, colorless juice is mainly made up of water and also contains salt, sodium bicarbonate and digestive enzymes. There are enzymes for breaking down fats (lipases), proteins (proteases), and carbohydrates (amylases). Proteases are inactive while inside the pancreas. They are activated once they have been secreted into the small intestine. The sodium bicarbonate neutralizes the acidic gastric (stomach) juice in the mass of semi-digested food to help the digestive enzymes work better. The digestive juices flows from the pancreas through an excretory duct into the small intestine. In most people, this duct joins up with the the excretory duct of the gallbladder before reaching the small intestine. A sphincter muscle at the end of the duct controls the flow of digestive juice into the small intestine. In case of pancreatitis, enzymes may be activated inside the pancreas before reaching the small intestine, causing the gland to start "digesting itself." Endocrine pancreas cells Groups of endocrine cells are spread over the surface of the pancreas. They are called islets of Langerhans, because they are scattered like small islands and were discovered by pathologist Paul Langerhans. These islet ce Continue reading >>
The Pancreas
Overview of Pancreatic Islets Pancreatic islets, also called the islets of Langerhans, are regions of the pancreas that contain its hormone-producing endocrine cells. Learning Objectives Differentiate among the types of pancreatic islet cells Key Takeaways Key Points The pancreatic islets are small islands of cells that produce hormones that regulate blood glucose levels. Hormones produced in the pancreatic islets are secreted directly into the bloodstream by five different types of cells. The alpha cells produce glucagon, and make up 15–20% of total islet cells. The beta cells produce insulin and amylin, and make up 65–80% of the total islet cells. The delta cells produce somatostatin, and make up 3–10% of the total islet cells. The gamma cells produce pancreatic polypeptide, and make up 3–5% of the total islet cells. The epsilon cells produce ghrelin, and make up less than 1% of the total islet cells. The feedback system of the pancreatic islets is paracrine, and is based on the activation and inhibition of the islet cells by the endocrine hormones produced in the islets. Key Terms endocrine: Produces internal secretions that are transported around the body by the bloodstream. paracrine: Describes a hormone or other secretion released from endocrine cells into the surrounding tissue rather than into the bloodstream. exocrine: Produces external secretions that are released through a duct. The pancreas serves two functions, endocrine and exocrine. The exocrine function of the pancreas is involved in digestion, and these associated structures are known as the pancreatic acini. The pancreatic acini are clusters of cells that produce digestive enzymes and secretions and make up the bulk of the pancreas. The endocrine function of the pancreas helps maintain blood gl Continue reading >>
The Endocrine Pancreas
Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: Describe the location and structure of the pancreas, and the morphology and function of the pancreatic islets Compare and contrast the functions of insulin and glucagon The pancreas is a long, slender organ, most of which is located posterior to the bottom half of the stomach (Figure 1). Although it is primarily an exocrine gland, secreting a variety of digestive enzymes, the pancreas has an endocrine function. Its pancreatic islets—clusters of cells formerly known as the islets of Langerhans—secrete the hormones glucagon, insulin, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide (PP). Cells and Secretions of the Pancreatic Islets The pancreatic islets each contain four varieties of cells: The alpha cell produces the hormone glucagon and makes up approximately 20 percent of each islet. Glucagon plays an important role in blood glucose regulation; low blood glucose levels stimulate its release. The beta cell produces the hormone insulin and makes up approximately 75 percent of each islet. Elevated blood glucose levels stimulate the release of insulin. The delta cell accounts for four percent of the islet cells and secretes the peptide hormone somatostatin. Recall that somatostatin is also released by the hypothalamus (as GHIH), and the stomach and intestines also secrete it. An inhibiting hormone, pancreatic somatostatin inhibits the release of both glucagon and insulin. The PP cell accounts for about one percent of islet cells and secretes the pancreatic polypeptide hormone. It is thought to play a role in appetite, as well as in the regulation of pancreatic exocrine and endocrine secretions. Pancreatic polypeptide released following a meal may reduce further food consumption; however, it is also released Continue reading >>
You And Your Hormones
Where is the pancreas? The pancreas is a large gland that lies alongside the stomach and the small bowel. It is about six inches (approximately 15 cm) long and is divided into the head, body and tail. What does the pancreas do? The pancreas carries out two important roles: It makes digestive juices, which consist of powerful enzymes. These are released into the small bowel after meals to break down and digest food. It makes hormones that control blood glucose levels. The pancreas produces hormones in its 'endocrine' cells. These cells are gathered in clusters known as islets of langerhans and monitor what is happening in the blood. They then can release hormones directly into the blood when necessary. In particular, they sense when sugar (glucose) levels in the blood rise, and as soon as this happens the cells produce hormones, particularly insulin. Insulin then helps the body to lower blood glucose levels and 'store' the sugar away in fat, muscle, liver and other body tissues where it can be used for energy when required. The pancreas is very close to the stomach. As soon as food is eaten, the pancreas releases digestive enzymes into the bowel to break food down. As the food is digested, and nutrient levels in the blood rise, the pancreas produces insulin to help the body store the glucose (energy) away. Between meals, the pancreas does not produce insulin and this allows the body to gradually release stores of energy back into the blood as they are needed. Glucose levels remain very stable in the blood at all times to ensure that the body has a steady supply of energy. This energy is needed for metabolism, exercise and, in particular, to fuel the parts of the brain that 'run' on glucose. This makes sure that the body doesn't starve between meals. What hormones does th Continue reading >>
Your Pancreas: Digestion & Hormones
The pancreas is unique in that it is both an organ and an endocrine gland. It serves the function of producing enzymes that are essential for the breakdown of fat, protein and carbohydrates. In addition to this, your pancreas produces the hormones insulin, glucagon and somatostatin. Elevated insulin levels are primary concerns for diabetics and those with heart disease risk. Some research shows that the pancreas may also serve another important function. In 1902, the Scottish Embryoligist John Beard proposed that proteolytic, pancreatic enzymes were the body's primary defense against cancer. Within a few years, pancreatic enzyme cancer clinics popped up all over London. Not too long after this, Madame Curie proposed radiation therapy for cancer patients and Dr. Beard's work was soon lost in the tomes of medical history. Dr. Beard's pancreatic enzyme therapy for cancer was re-evaluated in the 1960's by William Donald Kelley, a dentist who had used Beard's protocol to cure himself of pancreatic cancer. Kelley went on to become known as "the father of Metabolic Typing". He offered individualized nutritional therapies for patients, mostly who had cancer. The pancreas is signalled by the hormone CCK (cholecystokinin) to produce pancreatic enzymes, which when released into the upper part of the small intestine called the duodenum, effectively break down protein, fat and carbohydrates. To review some of the basic and important components of digestion: The pre-digestion of food takes place in the top portion of the stomach. Here, salivary enzymes and any food enzymes present will pre-digest food before acidification takes place. Somewhere between 30-60 minutes after food is consumed, the stomach's parietal cells should produce hydrochloric acid. Production of this vital acid i Continue reading >>
The Role Of The Pancreas In The Digestive (exocrine) System
The role of the pancreas in digestion and sugar metabolism Along with the liver, the pancreas is one of the master chemists of the body. In fact, it’s two chemists in one. The pancreas is a gland about the size of a hand, tucked between a bend in the upper part of the intestines (the duodenum) and the stomach. One function of the pancreas produces enzymes for the digestive system in the exocrine tissue. The other function of the pancreas creates hormones as part of the endocrine system. Within the pancreas the tissues of both systems intertwine, which makes it difficult to treat the pancreas because things that work on one system very easily damage the other. In essence, the pancreas is a digestive organ in that all its functions relate to digestion and the regulation of nutrients entering the blood stream – especially sugar in the form of glucose. While its exocrine function connects directly to the small intestine through a system of ducts, the endocrine pancreas connects to the rest of the body through the blood and nervous systems. Both systems react to the demand for energy and the complex chemical biofeedback controlled process of digestion. The stomach breaks down the bulky food you eat and starts the process of reducing the large nutrient molecules with gastric acids. The intestines carry out the task of absorbing the nutrients into the bloodstream. The pancreas, with its ducts leading into the top of the small intestine, plays a crucial role in digestion by secreting enzymes that cut apart large nutrient molecules, making smaller molecules that can be absorbed into the bloodstream through the walls of the intestines. Within the pancreas, acinar cells produce the digestion enzymes, which travel in pancreatic juice into the duodenum through a system of ducts Continue reading >>
An Overview Of The Pancreas
Pancreas Essentials The pancreas maintains the body’s blood glucose (sugar) balance. Primary hormones of the pancreas include insulin and glucagon, and both regulate blood glucose. Diabetes is the most common disorder associated with the pancreas. The pancreas is unique in that it’s both an endocrine and exocrine gland. In other words, the pancreas has the dual function of secreting hormones into blood (endocrine) and secreting enzymes through ducts (exocrine). The pancreas belongs to the endocrine and digestive systems—with most of its cells (more than 90%) working on the digestive side. However, the pancreas performs the vital duty of producing hormones—most notably insulin—to maintain the balance of blood glucose (sugar) and salt in the body. Without this balance, your body is susceptible to serious complications, such as diabetes. Anatomy of the Pancreas The pancreas is a 6 inch-long flattened gland that lies deep within the abdomen, between the stomach and the spine. It is connected to the duodenum, which is part of the small intestine. Only about 5% of the pancreas is comprised of endocrine cells. These cells are clustered in groups within the pancreas and look like little islands of cells when examined under a microscope. These groups of pancreatic endocrine cells are known as pancreatic islets or more specifically, islets of Langerhans (named after the scientist who discovered them). Hormones of the Pancreas The production of pancreatic hormones, including insulin, somatostatin, gastrin, and glucagon, play an important role in maintaining sugar and salt balance in our bodies. Gastrin: This hormone aids digestion by stimulating certain cells in the stomach to produce acid. Glucagon: Glucagon helps insulin maintain normal blood glucose by working in the Continue reading >>
