Review Quiz
a. Hyperglycemic b. Hypoglycemic c. Hyperosmotic d. Hypomanic e. Hypercholesterolemic Under some circumstances (sometimes referred to as the futile cycle), fructose-1,6-biphosphate may be hydrolyzed to form fructose-6-phosphate and phosphoric acid nearly as rapidly as it is formed. When this is happening, the major effect noticed would be: a. Rapid formation of pyruvate b. Rapid formation of ATP c. Increased temperature in the tissue and organism d. Steady increase in the activity of pyruvate kinase e. Increased concentration of phosphoenolpyruvate The body requires backup stores of reduced carbon. We have two forms, lipids and starch or glycogen. Our immediate source of reduced carbon is glucose, which we access by several pathways such as glycolysis. We normally have about 90 mg of glucose per deciliter of blood but need to have an immediate backup source of glucose. Which of these is the source? a. Glucose-6-phosphate b. Fructose-2,6-biphosphate c. ATP d. Acetyl-CoenzymeA e. GTP a. Have little or no oxygen available b. Operate in hot springs at high temperature c. Function at high oxygen concentration d. Act in the presence of nitrogen e. Lack enzymes to carry out glycolysis a. Glucose b. Fructose-6-phosphate c. Pyruvic acid d. Citric acid e. Lactic acid a. Kidney, liver, and aerobic muscle b. Brain, red blood cells, anaerobic muscle, and lactating mammary c. Heart, liver, and pancreas d. Tissue that is rapidly oxidizing lipids e. Tissue in which glycolysis is occurring rapidly a. Being converted to carbon dioxide and water without phosphorylation b. Immediate oxidation in the pentose-phosphate pathway c. Formation of a polymer of fructose similar to glycogen but made up of linear polymers of fructose and mannose d. Phosphorylation by fructokinase or hexokinase to fo Continue reading >>
A&p 2 Flashcards
_________is the process in which glucose is converted to _______ which is stored in the _______ and _______ during periods of glucose excess. Glycogenesis, glycogen, skeletal muscle, liver Since the storage capacity for glycogen in the liver is limited, when it is "full" excess glucose is converted to __________ and stored in __________. __________is the process in which _______ is broken down to form ______ during periods when blood glucose levels are low. when glucose levels are low, it may also be formed by the process of ___________, which occurs in the _______. transports dietary lipids to adipose tissue for storage "very low-density lipoproteins" - transports triglycerides synthesized in hepatocytes to adipocytes for storage "low-density lipoproteins" - carry 75% of total cholesterol in blood & deliver it to cells throughout the body for use in repair of cell membraines & synthesis of steroid hormones & bile salts "high-density lipoproteins" - remove excess cholesterol from body cells & the blood & transports it to the liver for elimination compare LDL & HDL in terms of health significance glycerol is converted by many cells of the body to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. It ATP is high, it then is converted into glucose. It ATP is low, it enters the catabolic pathway to pyruvic acid. (glycerol may be converted to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate which can then be converted to glucose or enter the krebs cycle for oxidation) fatty acids undergo beta oxidation & enter the krebs cycle via acetyl CoA or acetyl CoA can become a ketone body by ketogenesis. what is beta oxidation? in what tissues/organs does it occur? a series of reactions that constitute the first stage in fatty acid catabolism, it occurs in the matrix of mitochondria important immediate compounds formed during h Continue reading >>
The Synthesis Of Glucose From Noncarbohydrate Precursors Is Called Quizlet
the synthesis of glucose from noncarbohydrate precursors is called quizlet Study Chapter 24 Nutrition, Metabolism, and Body Temperature Regulation Exam amino acid synthesis D) glucose is formed from noncarbohydrate precursors.General Nutrition; Calorie Requirements. M Dietary proteins furnish the necessary sources of amino acids and nitrogen for synthesis of body protein glucose.30.The amount of air that can be inspired above the tidal volume is called: cellular ATP and Glucose glucose is formed from noncarbohydrate precursors;.Nutrition, Metabolism, and Body Temperature Regulation flashcards influence cholesterol synthesis in glucose is formed from noncarbohydrate precursors.Building up glycogen from glucose is called a. glucose is formed from noncarbohydrate precursors. c. proteins will be used by most cells for ATP synthesis.Lehninger Chapter 20: Carbohydrate Biosynthesis pathway for synthesis of glucose from noncarbohydrate precursors. cost of synthesis of glucose.Precursors include pyruvate, the synthesis of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources, the liver manufactures glucose in a process called gluconeogenesis.Optimum Nutrition remains an elusive goal because and are also precursors to which is the ability of the body to produce glucose from noncarbohydrate.Full text of "clinical cases biochemistry1aim.net" See other formats.Answers to Study Questions. Gluconeogenesis is synthesis of glucose within the body from noncarbohydrate precursors such as amino acids.A deficiency of protein, energy, or both in the diet is called protein-energy malnutrition, or PEM. Severe Gluconeogenesis is synthesis of glucose within the body from noncarbohydrate precursors such as amino acids, lactic acid, and glycerol.Chapter 16: Glycogen Metabolism and Gluconeogenesis Matching Choose Continue reading >>
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Gluconeogenesis | Definition Of Gluconeogenesis By Medical Dictionary
Gluconeogenesis | definition of gluconeogenesis by Medical dictionary the synthesis of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources, such as amino acids and glycerol. It occurs primarily in the liver and kidneys whenever the supply of carbohydrates is insufficient to meet the body's energy needs. Gluconeogenesis is stimulated by cortisol and other glucocorticoids and by the thyroid hormone thyroxine. Formerly called glyconeogenesis. /gluconeogenesis/ (glooko-neo-jen-sis) the synthesis of glucose from molecules that are not carbohydrates, such as amino and fatty acids. The formation of glucose, especially by the liver, from noncarbohydrate sources, such as amino acids and the glycerol portion of fats. gluconeogenetic (--j-ntk) adj. the formation of glucose from glycerol and proteins rather than from carbohydrates. Also called glyconeogenesis . The formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate moleculeseg, amino acids, lactic acid The formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources, especially from AMINO ACIDS from protein. GLUCOCORTICOID hormones stimulate gluconeogenesis. the process by which PYRUVIC ACID (pyruvate) is converted to GLUCOSE . This is not the exact reversal of GLYCOLYSIS . Three of the reactions of glycolysis are irreversible and it is in these three that gluconeogenesis differs. In the CELL gluconeogenesis is normally more active when there is little need for ATP . The process meets the needs of the body for glucose when CARBOHYDRATE is not available in adequate amounts from the diet. Non-carbohydrates, such as FAT and PROTEIN , can be converted into glucose, notably in the LIVER and KIDNEY . synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors mainly in the liver and to a smaller extent in the renal cortex. Precursors include pyruvate, lactate, glycerol and th Continue reading >>
Principles Of Biochemistry/gluconeogenesis And Glycogenesis
Gluconeogenesis (abbreviated GNG) is a metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates such as lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids. It is one of the two main mechanisms humans and many other animals use to keep blood glucose levels from dropping too low (hypoglycemia). The other means of maintaining blood glucose levels is through the degradation of glycogen (glycogenolysis). Gluconeogenesis is a ubiquitous process, present in plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, and other microorganisms. In animals, gluconeogenesis takes place mainly in the liver and, to a lesser extent, in the cortex of kidneys. This process occurs during periods of fasting, starvation, low-carbohydrate diets, or intense exercise and is highly endergonic. For example, the pathway leading from phosphoenolpyruvate to glucose-6-phosphate requires 6 molecules of ATP. Gluconeogenesis is often associated with ketosis. Gluconeogenesis is also a target of therapy for type II diabetes, such as metformin, which inhibits glucose formation and stimulates glucose uptake by cells. Lactate is transported back to the liver where it is converted into pyruvate by the Cori cycle using the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase. Pyruvate, the first designated substrate of the gluconeogenic pathway, can then be used to generate glucose. All citric acid cycle intermediates, through conversion to oxaloacetate, amino acids other than lysine or leucine, and glycerol can also function as substrates for gluconeogenesis.Transamination or deamination of amino acids facilitates entering of their carbon skeleton into the cycle directly (as pyruvate or oxaloacetate), or indirectly via the citric acid cycle. Whether fatty acids can be converted into glucose in animals has been a longst Continue reading >>
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A And P Ii Chapter 25 Review
results in the net gain of 2 ATP molecules. Which of the following is a fat-soluble vitamin necessary for vision and for healthy skin? Two hours ago, a student ate enchiladas, rice and beans for lunch. Which of the following is true of this student's metabolism The primary hormone regulating the student's metabolism at this time is insulin. Which of the following is a water-soluble vitamin necessary for DNA synthesis, normal blood cell production and the prevention of neural tube defects? conversion of one C6H12O6 to two pyruvic acid molecules Which of the following is an effect of starvation? The most frequently used "energy currency" molecule of the cell is a series of reactions that transfers energy from FADH2 and NADH to ATP The sum of all of the chemical reactions that occur in the body is How is excess glucose stored in liver and muscle cells synthesis of triglycerides from glucose and fatty acids When glucose levels are low, glucagon and cortisol can stimulate production of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources by a process called the process by which the glycogen present in the liver is transformed into glucose, to be released into the blood a metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates such as pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids what is the role of oxygen in aerobic cellular respiration (metabolism) keeps electron transport chain going so ATP can continuously be made Under what conditions does pyruvic acid form lactic acid This commonly occurs in muscle tissue that is trying to use oxygen faster than it's coming in. Note that a ketone group has been coverted into an alcohol group. Pyruvic acid picks up two additional hydrogen atoms to become lactic acid, so this is a reduction reaction. Continue reading >>
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How Food Works
You have probably heard of "carbohydrates" and "complex carbohydrates." Carbohydrates provide your body with its basic fuel. Your body thinks about carbohydrates like a car engine thinks about gasoline. The simplest carbohydrate is glucose. Glucose, also called "blood sugar" and "dextrose," flows in the bloodstream so that it is available to every cell in your body. Your cells absorb glucose and convert it into energy to drive the cell. Specifically, a set of chemical reactions on glucose creates ATP (adenosine triphosphate), and a phosphate bond in ATP powers most of the machinery in any human cell. If you drink a solution of water and glucose, the glucose passes directly from your digestive system into the bloodstream. The word "carbohydrate" comes from the fact that glucose is made up of carbon and water. The chemical formula for glucose is: You can see that glucose is made of six carbon atoms (carbo...) and the elements of six water molecules (...hydrate). Glucose is a simple sugar, meaning that to our tongues it tastes sweet. There are other simple sugars that you have probably heard of. Fructose is the main sugar in fruits. Fructose has the same chemical formula as glucose (C6H12O6), but the atoms are arranged slightly differently. The liver converts fructose to glucose. Sucrose, also known as "white sugar" or "table sugar," is made of one glucose and one fructose molecule bonded together. Lactose (the sugar found in milk) is made of one glucose and one galactose molecule bonded together. Galactose, like fructose, has the same chemical components as glucose but the atoms are arranged differently. The liver also converts galactose to glucose. Maltose, the sugar found in malt, is made from two glucose atoms bonded together. Glucose, fructose and galactose are monosa Continue reading >>
Gluconeogenesis
Not to be confused with Glycogenesis or Glyceroneogenesis. Simplified Gluconeogenesis Pathway Gluconeogenesis (GNG) is a metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from certain non-carbohydrate carbon substrates. From breakdown of proteins, these substrates include glucogenic amino acids (although not ketogenic amino acids); from breakdown of lipids (such as triglycerides), they include glycerol (although not fatty acids); and from other steps in metabolism they include pyruvate and lactate. Gluconeogenesis is one of several main mechanisms used by humans and many other animals to maintain blood glucose levels, avoiding low levels (hypoglycemia). Other means include the degradation of glycogen (glycogenolysis)[1] and fatty acid catabolism. Gluconeogenesis is a ubiquitous process, present in plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, and other microorganisms.[2] In vertebrates, gluconeogenesis takes place mainly in the liver and, to a lesser extent, in the cortex of the kidneys. In ruminants, this tends to be a continuous process.[3] In many other animals, the process occurs during periods of fasting, starvation, low-carbohydrate diets, or intense exercise. The process is highly endergonic until it is coupled to the hydrolysis of ATP or GTP, effectively making the process exergonic. For example, the pathway leading from pyruvate to glucose-6-phosphate requires 4 molecules of ATP and 2 molecules of GTP to proceed spontaneously. Gluconeogenesis is often associated with ketosis. Gluconeogenesis is also a target of therapy for type 2 diabetes, such as the antidiabetic drug, metformin, which inhibits glucose formation and stimulates glucose uptake by cells.[4] In ruminants, because dietary carbohydrates tend to be metabolized by rumen organisms, gluconeogenesis occurs Continue reading >>
Blood Proteins - Albumen, Clotting Proteins
Liver Pathology Functions of the liver: Manufacture - blood proteins - albumen, clotting proteins urea - nitrogenous waste from amino acid metabolism bile - excretory for the bile pigments, emulsification of fats by bile salts Storage - glycogen - carbohydrate fuel iron - as hemosiderin and ferritin fat soluble vitamins A, D, E, K Detoxification - alcohol drugs and medicines environmental toxins Protein metabolism - (See Figure 25.15) transamination - removing the amine from one amino acid and using it to produce a different amino acid. The body can produce all but the essential amino acids; these must be included in the diet. (See Figure 25.3) deamination - removal of the amine group in order to catabolize the remaining keto acid. The amine group enters the blood as urea which is excreted through the kidneys. Glycemic Regulation - the management of blood glucose. glycogenesis - the conversion of glucose into glycogen. glycogenolysis - the breakdown of glycogen into glucose. gluconeogenesis - the manufacture of glucose from non carbohydrate sources, mostly protein. See Disorders below. See [Liver Pathology] Structure of the liver - (See Figure 24.24) The liver is composed mostly of cells known as hepatocytes which perform the functions listed above. They have the ability to shift functions so their efforts can be directed at what is most needed. They can also divide to repair and replace tissue. Cirrhosis is a condition which can occur in the liver and other organs in which the cells are damaged as a result of toxins, pathogenic organisms, etc. Cirrhosis causes thickening and fibrosis and can progressively damage the liver to the point it can no longer recover by replacing its cells. Other functions also suffer as more hepatocytes become committed to detoxification. The Continue reading >>
Biochemistry 1 - Week 3
To syntheize 1 mole of glucose from pyruvate in liver you need: 2 NADH, -Formation of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources such as amino acids and glycerol. -Under the control of glucagon lipids and or protiens may be converted to glucose. -Chemical by products known as ketone bodies are formed. the conversion of glucose to glycogen when the glucose in the blood exceeds the demand, Conversion of glucose to glycogen. Under dir. of insulin (hypoglycemic hormone). Glycogen stored mainly in liver and muscle., the formation of glycogen from carbohydrates, Glycogen formation when glucose supplies exceed need for atp synthesis., stimulated by insulin; create glycogen for storage, the synthesis of glucose storage polymer. Occurs in cytosol of cells. Start by converting G-6-P to G-1-P. Net reaction: add UTP to G-1-P to create monomers that are then polymerized. Controlling enzyme is glycogen synthase. Energy expenditure: 1 ATP per UDP-glucose., Anabolism of glucose into glycogen for storage. conversion of glycogen to glucose when blood sugar is low, steps: glycogen(n) glycogen (n-1) + Glucose 1-P (Phosphorylase) 2. When you've gotten down to 4 residues away from the branch point, the branching enzyme(transferase) will transfer three residues to another branch and hydrolyze the remaining residue (glucosidase), giving a free glucose, source of glucose from cell stores; liver stores can contribute to serum levels. Occurs in cytosol. Net reaction: break down alpha-1,4 glycosidic linkages to G-1-P. Controlling enzyme glycogen phosphorylase. Yield about 38 ATP/glucose a metabolic process that breaks down carbohydrates and sugars through a series of reactions to either pyruvic acid or lactic acid and release energy for the body in the form of ATP, in cellular respiration, series of a Continue reading >>
How Is Glucose Produced?
Your body thrives on glucose, which is the sugar it uses to synthesize energy. Carbohydrates supply glucose and other sugars that are converted into glucose. But it's such a vital source of energy that the body has a back-up system called gluconeogenesis. This metabolic pathway produces new glucose from noncarbohydrate sources. Video of the Day Carbohydrates are made from molecules of sugar connected together. Simple sugars consist of one to three sugar molecules, while starches contain hundreds to thousands of molecules, reports Colorado State University. The small intestine only absorbs single sugar molecules, which is why digestive enzymes break carbs down into the three monosaccharides: glucose, galactose and fructose. The monosaccharides travel to the liver, where glucose is generated when the liver turns galactose and fructose into glucose. The liver may send glucose into the bloodstream, where it’s transported to cells that need it for energy. If blood levels of glucose are high enough to meet your energy needs, the liver stores glucose by turning it into glycogen or fat. New Glucose Synthesis When the body produces glucose from something other than carbohydrates, the process is called gluconeogenesis. Most gluconeogenesis occurs in the liver, but a small amount also takes place in the kidneys and small intestine. Like carbs, fats and proteins are digested into smaller units. Glycerol from fats and amino acids from proteins may be used to make glucose. All amino acids except leucine and lysine can enter the gluconeogenesis pathway, but glutamine is the only one used in the kidneys and small intestine, according to Medical Biochemistry Page. Lactate is another substance used to synthesize new glucose. The boost in energy metabolism during intense exercise result Continue reading >>
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Glucose Can Be Synthesized From Noncarbohydrate Precursors - Biochemistry - Ncbi Bookshelf
Glucose is formed by hydrolysis of glucose 6-phosphate in a reaction catalyzed by glucose 6-phosphatase. We will examine each of these steps in turn. 16.3.2. The Conversion of Pyruvate into Phosphoenolpyruvate Begins with the Formation of Oxaloacetate The first step in gluconeogenesis is the carboxylation of pyruvate to form oxaloacetate at the expense of a molecule of ATP . Then, oxaloacetate is decarboxylated and phosphorylated to yield phosphoenolpyruvate, at the expense of the high phosphoryl-transfer potential of GTP . Both of these reactions take place inside the mitochondria. The first reaction is catalyzed by pyruvate carboxylase and the second by phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase. The sum of these reactions is: Pyruvate carboxylase is of special interest because of its structural, catalytic, and allosteric properties. The N-terminal 300 to 350 amino acids form an ATP -grasp domain ( Figure 16.25 ), which is a widely used ATP-activating domain to be discussed in more detail when we investigate nucleotide biosynthesis ( Section 25.1.1 ). The C -terminal 80 amino acids constitute a biotin-binding domain ( Figure 16.26 ) that we will see again in fatty acid synthesis ( Section 22.4.1 ). Biotin is a covalently attached prosthetic group, which serves as a carrier of activated CO2. The carboxylate group of biotin is linked to the -amino group of a specific lysine residue by an amide bond ( Figure 16.27 ). Note that biotin is attached to pyruvate carboxylase by a long, flexible chain. The carboxylation of pyruvate takes place in three stages: Recall that, in aqueous solutions, CO2 exists as HCO3- with the aid of carbonic anhydrase (Section 9.2). The HCO3- is activated to carboxyphosphate. This activated CO2 is subsequently bonded to the N-1 atom of the biotin ring to Continue reading >>
Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis (GNG) is a metabolic process of making glucose, a necessary body fuel, from non-carbohydrate sources such as protein (amino acids), lactate from the muscles and the glycerol component of fatty acids. Blood glucose levels must be maintained within a narrow range for good health. If blood sugar is too high, it results in tissue and organ damage. If it is too low, cellular respiration and energy production can suffer, especially if the body is "carbohydrate-adapted," meaning the body uses glucose as it's primary fuel. Therefore, the ability of the liver and kidneys to “make new sugar” and regulate blood sugar levels is critical. The main advantage of this process is that it helps the body maintain steady blood sugar levels when foods containing carbohydrates or stored sugars (glycogen reserves) are unavailable. Without gluconeogenesis, you wouldn't live very long, especially without food, as your body must have a constant and steady level of blood glucose to keep the brain and red blood cells going. Mold Test Kits Easy to Use, Fast Results Available Interpretive Lab Report moldtesting.com Glucose and Ignorance If you decide to stop eating, or you decide to follow a low carb ketogenic diet, carbohydrate intake drops. To make up for the missing carbohydrate in your diet, the liver creates the blood glucose it needs by breaking down the glycogen stored in your muscles and liver from your last meal. This process is called glycogenolysis. After about 30 hours with no food, a great deal of this stored glycogen is broken down, and the body must then begin making glucose by breaking down stored fatty acids or amino acids from the protein in your muscles. Some dietitians and trainers insist that this process is the reason that carbohydrates are "essential foods" Continue reading >>
Nutrition Exam 2 Flashcards | Quizlet
Which of the following statements about diabetes is true? a. In type 1 diabetes, the pancreas fails to produce insulin. b. Type 1 diabetes is more common than type 2 diabetes. c. Type 2 diabetes is frequently associated with a healthy body weight. d. In type 2 diabetes, the pancreas produces a type of insulin that is abnormal and thus not recognized by the body. e. Concentrated sweets, such as candy, are strictly excluded from the diabetic diet. Which of the following statements regarding lactose intolerance is false? a. Total elimination of milk products is necessary for those who are lactose intolerant. b. Lactose intolerance is greatest among native North Americans and Southeast Asians. c. People who consume no milk products must take care to meet riboflavin, vitamin D, and calcium needs. e. Symptoms of lactose intolerance include bloating, abdominal discomfort, and diarrhea. Which of the following is an herbal product that has recently been granted the status of "generally recognized as safe" and will be used as an alternative sweetener in the United States? Which of the following statements is false regarding lipid chemistry? a. Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids are polyunsaturated fatty acids. b. Triglycerides are made up of one glycerol molecule and three fatty acids. c. Fatty acids made up of 20 carbons are the most common in foods. d. Fatty acids come in long chains made up of an even number of carbon atoms. Which of the following is not a role of phospholipids? b. acting as a cofactor for certain fat-soluble vitamins c. helping fat-soluble substances pass in and out of cells ________ is the nation's number one killer of adults. Continue reading >>
Glycogenesis, Glycogenolysis,
Biosynthesis of Glycogen: The goal of glycolysis, glycogenolysis, and the citric acid cycle is to conserve energy as ATP from the catabolism of carbohydrates. If the cells have sufficient supplies of ATP, then these pathways and cycles are inhibited. Under these conditions of excess ATP, the liver will attempt to convert a variety of excess molecules into glucose and/or glycogen. Glycogenesis: Glycogenesis is the formation of glycogen from glucose. Glycogen is synthesized depending on the demand for glucose and ATP (energy). If both are present in relatively high amounts, then the excess of insulin promotes the glucose conversion into glycogen for storage in liver and muscle cells. In the synthesis of glycogen, one ATP is required per glucose incorporated into the polymeric branched structure of glycogen. actually, glucose-6-phosphate is the cross-roads compound. Glucose-6-phosphate is synthesized directly from glucose or as the end product of gluconeogenesis. Link to: Interactive Glycogenesis (move cursor over arrows) Jim Hardy, Professor of Chemistry, The University of Akron. Glycogenolysis: In glycogenolysis, glycogen stored in the liver and muscles, is converted first to glucose-1- phosphate and then into glucose-6-phosphate. Two hormones which control glycogenolysis are a peptide, glucagon from the pancreas and epinephrine from the adrenal glands. Glucagon is released from the pancreas in response to low blood glucose and epinephrine is released in response to a threat or stress. Both hormones act upon enzymes to stimulate glycogen phosphorylase to begin glycogenolysis and inhibit glycogen synthetase (to stop glycogenesis). Glycogen is a highly branched polymeric structure containing glucose as the basic monomer. First individual glucose molecules are hydrolyzed fr Continue reading >>
