Identify The Main Endocrine Organ That Is Associated With Diabetes Mellitus

Diabetes Pathophysiology

Blood glucose regulation (6) 1. When blood glucose levels rise above a set point, 2. the pancreas secretes insulin into the blood. 3. Insulin stimulates liver and muscle cells to make glycogen, dropping blood glucose levels. 4. When glucose levels drop below a set point, 5. the pancreas secretes glucagon into the blood. 6. Glucagon promotes the breakdown of glycogen and the release of glucose into the blood. (The pancreas signals distant cells to regulate levels in the blood = endocrine function.) Insulin and Glucagon (Regulation) (10) 1. High blood glucose 2. Beta cells 3. Insulin 4. Glucose enters cell 5. Blood glucose lowered 6. Low blood glucose 7. Alpha cells 8. Glucagon 9. Liver releases glucose from glycogen 10. Blood glucose raised What is the manifestations (symptoms) of Type 1? (10) 1. Extreme thirst 2. Frequent urination 3. Drowsiness, lethargy 4. Sugar in urine 5. Sudden vision change 6. Increased appetite 7. Sudden weight loss 8. Fruity, sweet, or wine like odor on breath 9. Heavy, laboured breathing 10. Stupor, unconsciousness DKA Processes (5) 1. sympathetic nervous system response: additional glucose converted from glycogen 2. Glycogen depleted; body burns fat & protein for energy 3. fat metabolisms produce acidic substances called ketone bodies which accumulate in blood and urine and lead to metabolic acidosis 4. protein metabolism results in loss of lean muscle mass and negative nitrogen balance 5. high osmotic pressure created by excess glucose leads to osmotic diuresis (polyuria leads to dehydration and fluid and electrolyte deficits) HHNS Warning Signs (9) 1. Plasma glucose lvl over 600mg/dl 2. Dry, parched mouth 3. Extreme thirst may gradually subside 4. Warm, dry skin (no sweat) 5. High fever 6. Sleepiness or confusion 7. Loss of vision 8. Halluci Continue reading >>

The Endocrine System

The endocrine system is a unique and essential part of normal body function. Where the nervous system handles functions that happen quickly, like breathing and body movement, the endocrine system handles body functions that happen much slower, such as the growth of cells, organs, and metabolism. Endocrine system keeps the body's hormone and secretion levels in balance. Since there is a whole series of organs and glands that must work in tandem to maintain healthy hormone and secretion levels, when one of them doesn't function the way it's supposed to function, it puts a heavy strain on the rest of the body. This is what happens when the Pancreas stops producing Insulin and a person gets Type 1 diabetes. Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disorder where some other part of the body's immune system attacks pancreatic cells, preventing them from producing insulin. Any one of these delicate systems can be the culprit in pushing the body's system out of balance. Taking insulin as a treatment for Type 1 diabetes is just part of the solution to this disorder. If one of the glands or organs is still stressed due to overworking or not getting what it needs, daily insulin levels will fluctuate, making it harder to control Type 1 diabetes. The goal for the person with Type 1 diabetes is to take control of their disorder and maintaining healthy glucose levels. But to understand the delicate balance of the endocrine system and how the diabetic can achieve this goal, it helps to explore the function of each organ and gland. Glands included in the endocrine system include the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal glands, pineal body and reproductive glands which include the ovaries and the testes. Each one of these systems has a function to help the body stay in ba Continue reading >>

Ch. 17

Sort You are "shadowing" an endocrinologist who is examining a patient complaining of weakness, weight loss, and heat intolerance. The doctor points out the patient's obvious exophthalmos and asks for your diagnosis. What would you speculate is the patient's problem? hyper secretion of thyroid hormone Continue reading >>

What Is An Endocrinologist?

Endocrinology is a complex study of the various hormones and their actions and disorders in the body. Glands are organs that make hormones. These are substances that help to control activities in the body and have several effects on the metabolism, reproduction, food absorption and utilization, growth and development etc. Hormones also control the way an organism responds to their surroundings and help by providing adequate energy for various functions. The glands that make up the endocrine system include the pineal, hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries and testes. Who is an endocrinologist? An endocrinologist is a specially trained doctor who has a basic training in Internal Medicine as well. Some disorders like low thyroid hormone production or hypothyroidism deals only with an endocrine organ and an endocrinologist alone may detect, diagnose and manage such patients. Yet other disorders may have endocrine as well and other origins like infertility and may need a deeper understanding of medicine on the part of the endocrinologist to identify and work in collaboration with another specialist (a gynaecologist in cases of infertility). What do endocrinologists do? Endocrinologists have the training to diagnose and treat hormone imbalances and problems by helping to restore the normal balance of hormones in the body. The common diseases and disorders of the endocrine system that endocrinologists deal with include diabetes mellitus and thyroid disorders. Diabetes mellitus This is one of the most common conditions seen by endocrinologists. This results due to inadequate insulin hormone secreted by the pancreas leading to excess blood sugar that damages various organs. Endocrinologists treat diabetes with diet and blood sugar red Continue reading >>

The Endocrine System: The Pancreas & Diabetes

Several months ago, we explored the anatomy and physiology of the pancreas in terms of its role in the digestive process. But the pancreas is one of a handful of organs in the body that functions in two distinct modes. It is not only an exocrine digestive organ, but it also functions as part of the endocrine system and, to a significant degree, controls the metabolism of sugar in the body and its use as a source of energy for every single cell and organ in the body. In this newsletter, we examine the endocrine functions of the pancreas. As an endocrine organ, the pancreas produces two sugar-regulating hormones: insulin and glucagon. After reviewing the functions of insulin and glucagon and the four cell types that comprise the endocrine pancreas, we'll examine in detail the main disease associated with the pancreas, diabetes mellitus. The pancreas functions in two modes. As mentioned above, the pancreas functions in two distinctly different modes. It is both an exocrine digestive organ that secretes digestive juices and enzymes into the duct of Wirsung that runs down the middle of the pancreas and empties into the duodenum at the head of the pancreas. But the pancreas is also an endocrine organ, producing insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin that flow directly into the bloodstream, eventually reaching virtually every cell in the body. Anatomy review We explored the anatomy and physiology of the pancreas in some detail in our newsletter focused on that topic, but a quick review would be appropriate before discussing the gland's endocrine function. Physically, the pancreas is located in the upper abdominal cavity, towards the back -- in the C curve of the duodenum. It is about 12 inches long and tapers from right to left. (Remember, anatomically speaking, left and right ar Continue reading >>

> Your Endocrine System

You might say endocrine (say: EN-doh-krin) glands are a little bossy — they tell your cells what to do! But that's actually a good thing. Without your endocrine glands — and the hormones they release — your cells wouldn't know when to do important things. For instance, your bones wouldn't get the message that it's time for you to grow and get bigger. And your body wouldn't know that it's time to begin puberty, the body changes that turn kids into grownups. You have a variety of endocrine glands in different sizes and shapes located in different parts of the body. You might be surprised to learn that the pituitary (say: pih-TOO-uh-ter-ee) gland, which is about the size of a pea, is the "master gland" of the endocrine system. It makes and releases a bunch of hormones that control other glands and body functions. Tiny and tucked beneath your brain, the pituitary helps you grow big by producing growth hormone. Your thyroid (say: THY-royd) gland is in your neck and it's shaped like a bowtie or a butterfly. It makes hormones that are important for growth and it helps you stay alert and full of energy. Your adrenal (say: uh-DREE-nul) glands are really important to your body in times of trouble, like when you're sick or under stress. Adrenaline (say: uh-DREN-uh-lin), one of the adrenal gland hormones, gives you the boost you need if you're being chased by a wild animal — or even your brother! Your pancreas (say: PAN-kree-us) is your largest endocrine gland and it's found in your belly. The pancreas makes several hormones, including insulin (say: IN-suh-lin), which helps glucose (say: GLOO-kose), the sugar that's in your blood, enter the cells of your body. Your cells need to be fueled with glucose to function, like a car's engine needs gas. And we all know what happens Continue reading >>

Diabetes Mellitus (dm)

Years of poorly controlled hyperglycemia lead to multiple, primarily vascular complications that affect small vessels (microvascular), large vessels (macrovascular), or both. (For additional detail, see Complications of Diabetes Mellitus.) Microvascular disease underlies 3 common and devastating manifestations of diabetes mellitus: Microvascular disease may also impair skin healing, so that even minor breaks in skin integrity can develop into deeper ulcers and easily become infected, particularly in the lower extremities. Intensive control of plasma glucose can prevent or delay many of these complications but may not reverse them once established. Macrovascular disease involves atherosclerosis of large vessels, which can lead to Immune dysfunction is another major complication and develops from the direct effects of hyperglycemia on cellular immunity. Patients with diabetes mellitus are particularly susceptible to bacterial and fungal infections. Continue reading >>

Other Types Of Diabetes Mellitus

In most cases of diabetes, referred to as type 1 and type 2, no specific cause can be identified. This is referred to as primary or idiopathic diabetes. A small minority of cases, estimated at about 2%, arise as the consequence of some other well-defined disease or predisposing factor such as pancreatitis or steroid excess. This is called 'secondary diabetes'. Secondary diabetes can be sub-divided into single-gene disorders affecting insulin secretion or resistance, damage to the exocrine pancreas, other endocrine disease, drug-induced diabetes, uncommon manifestations of autoimmune diabetes, and genetic syndromes associated with diabetes. Gestational diabetes (diabetes arising for the first time in pregnancy) has a diagnostic category all to itself, but is included in this section for convenience. Secondary diabetes is often (but not always) associated with a relatively mild metabolic disturbance, but may nonetheless result in typical long-term complications such as retinopathy. Although it is relatively uncommon, the possibility of secondary diabetes should always be considered, since it may be a pointer to other disease, often requires a different approach to therapy, and is sometimes reversible. Background The common denominator of all the forms of diabetes discussed here is that something sets them apart from type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Since type 2 diabetes is hard to define, this implies that for most forms of diabetes in this category there is a pointer to a different pathophysiological explanation! The current WHO classification of diabetes, adopted and regularly updated by the American Diabetes Association, identifies four main categories of diabetes, and secondary diabetes is clssified under 'other specific types' (see figures). The common categories of secon Continue reading >>

Diabetes Mellitus

Alternative names for diabetes mellitus Diabetes; type 2 diabetes; type 1 diabetes; sugar diabetes; T2DM, T1DM; insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus; IDDM; juvenile-onset diabetes What is diabetes mellitus? Diabetes mellitus is a condition in which the body does not produce enough of the hormone insulin, resulting in high levels of sugar in the bloodstream. There are many different types of diabetes; the most common are type 1 and type 2 diabetes, which are covered in this article. Gestational diabetes occurs during the second half of pregnancy and is covered in a separate article. Diabetes mellitus is linked with an increased risk of heart attacks, strokes, poor blood circulation to the legs and damage to the eyes, feet and kidneys. Early diagnosis and strict control of blood sugar, blood pressure and cholesterol levels can help to prevent or delay these complications associated with diabetes. Maintaining a healthy lifestyle (regular exercise, not smoking and eating healthily) is important in reducing the risk of developing diabetes. What causes diabetes mellitus? Insulin is a hormone produced by the beta cells within the pancreas in response to the intake of food. The role of insulin is to lower blood sugar (glucose) levels by allowing cells in the muscle, liver and fat to take up sugar from the bloodstream that has been absorbed from food, and store it away as energy. In type 1 diabetes (or insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus), the insulin-producing cells are destroyed and the body is not able to produce insulin naturally. This means that sugar is not stored away but is constantly released from energy stores giving rise to high sugar levels in the blood. This in turn causes dehydration and thirst (because the high glucose ‘spills over’ into the urine and pulls wat Continue reading >>

The Endocrine System

Tweet The endocrine system consists of a number of different glands which secrete hormones that dictate how cells and organs behave. The hormones produced by the endocrine system help the body to regulate growth, sexual function, mood and metabolism. The role of the endocrine system The endocrine system is responsible for regulating many of the body's processes. The list below provides a selection of the roles of glands in the endocrine system: Pancreas – regulates blood glucose levels Adrenal gland – increases blood glucose levels and speeds up heart rate Thyroid gland - helps to regulate our metabolism Pituitary gland – stimulates growth Pineal gland – helps to regulate our sleep patterns Ovaries – promote development of female sex characteristics Testes – promote development of male sex characteristics The endocrine system and energy metabolism Metabolism encompasses all the chemical reactions which enable the body to sustain life. Energy metabolism is one of these processes and is vital for life. The body is able to use fat, protein and carbohydrate to provide energy. The pancreas plays an important part in energy metabolism by secreting the hormones insulin and glucagon which respectively make glucose and fatty acids available for cells to use for energy. The endocrine system and diabetes Diabetes affects how the body regulates blood glucose levels. Insulin helps to reduce levels of blood glucose whereas glucagon's role is to increase blood glucose levels. In people without diabetes, insulin and glucagon work together to keep blood glucose levels balanced. In diabetes, the body either doesn't produce enough insulin or doesn't respond properly to insulin causing an imbalance between the effects of insulin and glucagon. In type 1 diabetes, the body isn't Continue reading >>

The Endocrine System

The endocrine system is the body's network of glands that produce more than fifty different known hormones or chemical messengers to maintain and regulate basic bodily functions. It is second only to the nervous system as the great controlling system of the body. Whereas nerve impulses from the nervous system immediately prod the body into action, hormones from the endocrine system act more slowly to achieve their widespread and varied effects. The bodily processes regulated by the endocrine system go on for relatively long periods of time. Some go on continuously. These life processes include growth and development, reproduction, immunity (the body's ability to resist disease), and homeostasis (the body's ability to maintain the balance of its internal functions). DESIGN: PARTS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Glands are any organs that either secrete substances for further use in the body or excrete substances for elimination. Those that excrete substances for elimination are called exocrine glands (exo means "outside"). Exocrine glands have ducts or tubes that carry their secretions to the surface of the skin or into body cavities. Sweat glands and the liver are examples of exocrine glands. Endocrine glands (endo means "inside") secrete or release substances that are used in the body. These glands lack ducts, releasing their secretions directly into the surrounding tissues and blood. Those secretions—hormones—then travel in the cardiovascular system to various points throughout the body. The word hormone comes from a Greek word meaning "to arouse" or "to set in motion." Hormones control or coordinate the activities of other tissues, organs, and organ systems in the body. Most hormones are composed of amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. The smaller class of hormo Continue reading >>

Human Physiology/the Endocrine System

The endocrine system is a control system of ductless glands that secrete hormones within specific organs. Hormones act as "messengers," and are carried by the bloodstream to different cells in the body, which interpret these messages and act on them. It seems like a far fetched idea that a small chemical can enter the bloodstream and cause an action at a distant location in the body. Yet this occurs in our bodies everyday of our lives. The ability to maintain homeostasis and respond to stimuli is largely due to hormones secreted within the body. Without hormones, you could not grow, maintain a constant temperature, produce offspring, or perform the basic actions and functions that are essential for life. The endocrine system provides an electrochemical connection from the hypothalamus of the brain to all the organs that control the body metabolism, growth and development, and reproduction. There are two types of hormones secreted in the endocrine system: Steroidal (or lipid based) and non-steroidal, (or protein based) hormones. The endocrine system regulates its hormones through negative feedback, except in very specific cases like childbirth. Increases in hormone activity decrease the production of that hormone. The immune system and other factors contribute as control factors also, altogether maintaining constant levels of hormones. Exocrine Glands are those which release their cellular secretions through a duct which empties to the outside or into the lumen (empty internal space) of an organ. These include certain sweat glands, salivary and pancreatic glands, and mammary glands. They are not considered a part of the endocrine system. Endocrine Glands are those glands which have no duct and release their secretions directly into the intercellular fluid or into the blo Continue reading >>

Structure And Function Of The Endocrine System In Dogs

Below is information about the structure and function of the canine endocrine system. We will tell you about the general structure of endocrine system, how it works in dogs, common diseases that affect the endocrine system and common diagnostic tests performed to evaluate the endocrine system in dogs. What Is the Endocrine System? The endocrine system is composed of several different types of glands and organs that produce the hormones of the dog’s body. A hormone is a chemical that is secreted by a gland in one area of the body and is carried by the bloodstream to other organs in the body, where it exerts some effect. Most hormones regulate the activity or structure of their target organs. The overall effect of the endocrine system is to regulate, coordinate and control many different bodily functions. The endocrine system includes the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, part of the gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, kidneys, liver, ovaries and testes. Where Is the Endocrine System Located in Dogs? The endocrine system is scattered throughout the body as follows: The hypothalamus is located at the base of the brain. The pituitary gland is located on the base of the brain and is attached to the hypothalamus via a stalk-like structure. The thyroid gland is located in the neck, below the larynx (voice box). Two parathyroid glands are located in the neck, closely associated with the thyroid gland. Two adrenal glands are located in the abdominal cavity directly in front of the kidneys. The gastrointestinal (GI) tract is located in the abdominal cavity. The pancreas is located in the forward part of the abdominal cavity, behind the liver and stomach. The liver is in the front of the abdomen, just behind the diaphragm and below t Continue reading >>

Ssr 14-3p: Titles Ii And Xvi: Evaluating Endocrine Disorders Other Than Diabetes Mellitus

On April 8, 2011, we published final rules in the Federal Register in which we removed the listings for evaluating endocrine disorders in adults and in children from the Listing of Impairments (listings) because they no longer accurately identified people who are disabled.[2] [3] When we published the final rules, we stated in the preamble that we would provide more detailed information about specific endocrine disorders, the types of impairments and limitations that result from these disorders, and how we evaluate endocrine disorders in disability claims. We are publishing this SSR to provide the policy guidance we said we would provide in the preamble of the final rules. Policy Interpretation General Endocrine glands produce hormones responsible for controlling various physiological functions such as metabolism, blood glucose levels, digestion, electrolyte balance, water balance, and sexual function. The major glands in the endocrine system are pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, and gonads (testes and ovaries). The glands release hormones into the bloodstream where they travel to targeted organs. When an endocrine gland produces either too much of a hormone (hyperfunction) or too little of a hormone (hypofunction), the hormonal imbalance can cause an endocrine disorder, resulting in complications affecting various parts of the body. Although many endocrine disorders usually require lifelong treatment, medical advances in the diagnosis and treatment of endocrine disorders have resulted in better management of these disorders in adults and children. Types of Endocrine Disorders other than DM and Their Treatments Pituitary gland disorders. The pituitary gland, sometimes called the “master gland” of the endocrine system, controls the functions of all Continue reading >>

Islets Of Langerhans

Islets of Langerhans, also called islands of Langerhans, irregularly shaped patches of endocrine tissue located within the pancreas of most vertebrates. They are named for the German physician Paul Langerhans, who first described them in 1869. The normal human pancreas contains about 1,000,000 islets. The islets consist of four distinct cell types, of which three (alpha, beta, and delta cells) produce important hormones; the fourth component (C cells) has no known function. The most common islet cell, the beta cell, produces insulin, the major hormone in the regulation of carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism. Insulin is crucial in several metabolic processes: it promotes the uptake and metabolism of glucose by the body’s cells; it prevents release of glucose by the liver; it causes muscle cells to take up amino acids, the basic components of protein; and it inhibits the breakdown and release of fats. The release of insulin from the beta cells can be triggered by growth hormone (somatotropin) or by glucagon, but the most important stimulator of insulin release is glucose; when the blood glucose level increases—as it does after a meal—insulin is released to counter it. The inability of the islet cells to make insulin or the failure to produce amounts sufficient to control blood glucose level are the causes of diabetes mellitus. The alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans produce an opposing hormone, glucagon, which releases glucose from the liver and fatty acids from fat tissue. In turn, glucose and free fatty acids favour insulin release and inhibit glucagon release. The delta cells produce somatostatin, a strong inhibitor of somatotropin, insulin, and glucagon; its role in metabolic regulation is not yet clear. Somatostatin is also produced by the hypothalamu Continue reading >>