Understanding The Role Of Energy Homeostasis In Diabetes
Introduction The prevalence of diabetes and obesity has been on the rise for several decades and research has demonstrated that other parts of the body, including the cardiovascular system and kidneys, can be affected by diabetes. The key to understanding the relationship between diabetes and these other areas begins with the role of energy homeostasis in diabetes. At the same time, investigators are utilizing various biomarkers that have been shown to help further diabetes and obesity research. The key to understanding the relationship between diabetes and these other areas begins with the process of energy homeostasis and the important biomarkers used in today’s research. Role of Energy Homeostasis in Diabetes Energy homeostasis is a well-regulated process that depends on the coordination between feeding behavior and energy expenditure. The control of energy homeostasis in humans has received much attention in recent years due to alterations caused by the onset of conditions such as obesity and diabetes. A variety of organs tightly control energy homeostasis including the: The pancreas is one of the most important organs involved in maintaining energy homeostasis because it is responsible for the secretion of insulin and glucagon. Insulin and glucagon are two counter regulatory hormones that control the systemic concentration of glucose, a metabolic intermediate used by cells as the primary source of energy. If glucose homeostasis is thrown off balance, a diabetic state develops. What is Diabetes? Type 1 Diabetes (T1D, Juvenile Diabetes) Type 1 diabetes is an auto-immune disease that results in the destruction of β-cells in the pancreas1. With the destruction of β-cells, the body cannot produce enough insulin to maintain energy homeostasis. Onset of type 1 diabete Continue reading >>
The Endocrine System
Tweet The endocrine system consists of a number of different glands which secrete hormones that dictate how cells and organs behave. The hormones produced by the endocrine system help the body to regulate growth, sexual function, mood and metabolism. The role of the endocrine system The endocrine system is responsible for regulating many of the body's processes. The list below provides a selection of the roles of glands in the endocrine system: Pancreas – regulates blood glucose levels Adrenal gland – increases blood glucose levels and speeds up heart rate Thyroid gland - helps to regulate our metabolism Pituitary gland – stimulates growth Pineal gland – helps to regulate our sleep patterns Ovaries – promote development of female sex characteristics Testes – promote development of male sex characteristics The endocrine system and energy metabolism Metabolism encompasses all the chemical reactions which enable the body to sustain life. Energy metabolism is one of these processes and is vital for life. The body is able to use fat, protein and carbohydrate to provide energy. The pancreas plays an important part in energy metabolism by secreting the hormones insulin and glucagon which respectively make glucose and fatty acids available for cells to use for energy. The endocrine system and diabetes Diabetes affects how the body regulates blood glucose levels. Insulin helps to reduce levels of blood glucose whereas glucagon's role is to increase blood glucose levels. In people without diabetes, insulin and glucagon work together to keep blood glucose levels balanced. In diabetes, the body either doesn't produce enough insulin or doesn't respond properly to insulin causing an imbalance between the effects of insulin and glucagon. In type 1 diabetes, the body isn't Continue reading >>
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Blood Sugar Regulation
Most cells in the human body use the sugar called glucose as their major source of energy. Glucose molecules are broken down within cells in order to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules, energy-rich molecules that power numerous cellular processes. Glucose molecules are delivered to cells by the circulating blood and therefore, to ensure a constant supply of glucose to cells, it is essential that blood glucose levels be maintained at relatively constant levels. Level constancy is accomplished primarily through negative feedback systems, which ensure that blood glucose concentration is maintained within the normal range of 70 to 110 milligrams (0.0024 to 0.0038 ounces) of glucose per deciliter (approximately one-fifth of a pint) of blood. Negative feedback systems are processes that sense changes in the body and activate mechanisms that reverse the changes in order to restore conditions to their normal levels. Negative feedback systems are critically important in homeostasis, the maintenance of relatively constant internal conditions. Disruptions in homeostasis lead to potentially life-threatening situations. The maintenance of relatively constant blood glucose levels is essential for the health of cells and thus the health of the entire body. Major factors that can increase blood glucose levels include glucose absorption by the small intestine (after ingesting a meal) and the production of new glucose molecules by liver cells. Major factors that can decrease blood glucose levels include the transport of glucose into cells (for use as a source of energy or to be stored for future use) and the loss of glucose in urine (an abnormal event that occurs in diabetes mellitus). Insulin and Glucagon In a healthy person, blood glucose levels are restored to normal level Continue reading >>
Homeostasis And Diabetes
The American Heritage Dictionary defines homeostasis as a state of equilibrium, as in an organism or cell, maintained by self-regulating processes: The kidneys maintain homeostasis in the body by regulating the amount of salt and water excreted. Based on this definition, diabetes results from a disruption or failure of homeostasis. The Natural Balance of Glucose and Insulin In someone without diabetes, the pancreas and the liver coordinate the production of insulin and the production of glucose autonomously. When the body needs energy, the liver breaks down stored glucagon into glucose. The pancreas responds to this automatically, producing exactly enough insulin to allow the intake of glucose by cells in the body. Once the glucose is absorbed into the cells, there is no longer a need for insulin, and the pancreas stops producing. This balance of production is homeostasis, where the coordination of needs and responses is perfect. Approximating Homeostasis When the diabetic patient uses insulin, it is an attempt to restore homeostasis. Measuring blood glucose levels multiple times during the day and dosing oneself accordingly is meant to mimic that perfect control our bodies once exhibited. Unfortunately, the best we can do is approximate. For the patient who wears an insulin pump, coordination is closer, but still not perfect. At this point in time, insulin pumps are still only an attempt to mimic the perfect balance of sugar and insulin. These pumps release a continuous flow (baseline, or basal) of insulin, at low levels, with additional dosages (boluses) at mealtimes. While this is closer to what happens in someone without diabetes, the fact that both the basal and bolus amounts of insulin received are approximations of what the body needs means that homeostasis is al Continue reading >>
Module 50 /homeostasis And Homeostatic Imbalances
Provide specific examples to demonstrate how the lymphatic system responds to maintain homeostasis in the body, particularly related to the diseases presented in the introduction. The proper functioning of body cells depends on precise regulation of the composition of the interstitial fluid surrounding them. The composition of interstitial fluid changes as substances move back and forth between it and blood and lymph. In addition, some disruptions come from the external environment. Fortunately, the body has mechanisms to try to inhibit foreign substances from entering the internal environment of the body and if they do get in, immune responses help to remove or neutralize the invader before the disruption leads to disease. Unfortunately, some factors or situations affecting the lymphatic system and immune responses could disrupt homeostasis. Inflammatory Response and Clinical Disruptions to Homeostasis Lymph Nodes Lymph nodes play key roles in the body’s immune function. Lymph nodes filter harmful bacteria and other pathogens from the lymph, preventing them from reaching the blood and circulating throughout the body. Sometimes, however, the lymph nodes and appendix become overwhelmed by these tasks, resulting in homeostatic imbalance. Lymph nodes can become swollen and tender as the pathogen they are designed to fight infect them and result in inflammation. This is a common symptom of many illnesses, and is often (incorrectly) referred to as having “swollen glands.” Swollen lymph nodes often occur behind the ears, on the neck, near the jaw or chin, and in the armpits. Colds, the flu, tonsillitis, ear infections, and mononucleosis are common causes of this swelling. Although pain and tenderness associated with swollen lymph nodes typically diminishes within a few Continue reading >>
- How Does Diabetes Disrupt Homeostasis?
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Homeostasis is the tendency to resist change in order to maintain a stable, relatively constant internal environment. Homeostasis typically involves negative feedback loops that counteract changes of various properties from their target values, known as set points. In contrast to negative feedback loops, positive feedback loops amplify their initiating stimuli, in other words, they move the system away from its starting state. What's the temperature in the room where you're sitting right now? My guess would be that it's not exactly 98.6F/ 37.0C. Yet, your body temperature is usually very close to this value. In fact, if your core body temperature doesn't stay within relatively narrow limits—from about 95F/ 35C to 107F/ 41.7C—the results can be dangerous or even deadly. The tendency to maintain a stable, relatively constant internal environment is called homeostasis. The body maintains homeostasis for many factors in addition to temperature. For instance, the concentration of various ions in your blood must be kept steady, along with pH and the concentration of glucose. If these values get too high or low, you can end up getting very sick. Homeostasis is maintained at many levels, not just the level of the whole body as it is for temperature. For instance, the stomach maintains a pH that's different from that of surrounding organs, and each individual cell maintains ion concentrations different from those of the surrounding fluid. Maintaining homeostasis at each level is key to maintaining the body's overall function. Biological systems like those of your body are constantly being pushed away from their balance points. For instance, when you exercise, your muscles increase heat production, nudging your body temperature upward. Similarly, when you Continue reading >>
How Diabetes Affects Homeostasis
Transcript of How Diabetes Affects Homeostasis How Diabetes Affects Homeostasis Homeostasis Homeostasis is the dynamic state of equilibrium and it means that the body has to be in a balanced state for it to be able to function. Diabetes affects homeostasis by disrupting blood sugar levels and water regulations, which are both vital to the human body. Diabetes Diabetes is a group of metabolic diseases where a person has a high blood sugar level. Patients with diabetes often have side affects such as: frequent urination, hunger, and thirst. Type 1 Patients cannot produce their own insulin, thus their blood sugar level is not at homeostasis. To return the body to homeostasis, the patients must inject themselves with insulin everyday for their entire lives. Type 2 Patients does not produce enough insulin or their body is resistant to it. Some ways of treatment are: losing weight, eating healthy, getting exercise, and monitoring their blood sugar levels. Affected Body Systems Endocrine: Diabetes affects the endocrine system because it is the result of three main hormonal inconsistencies. Urinary: One side effect of diabetes is frequent urination and one symptom is that the body can't properly regulate water. It also affects the kidneys to the point where they could shut down. Nervous: Diabetes affects the nervous system by having too much glucose circulating the body. This can damage many nerves in the body and if the damage is too severe, amputation may be the only solution. Works Cited Newell, Lori. "Which Systems Of The Body Are Affected By Diabetes? | LIVESTRONG.COM." LIVESTRONG.COM - Lose Weight & Get Fit with Diet, Nutrition & Fitness Tools | LIVESTRONG.COM. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Sept. 2013. <"What Is the Relationship Between Homeostasis and Diabetes?." wiseGEEK: clear an Continue reading >>
Homeostasis Of Glucose Levels: Hormonal Control And Diabetes
Homeostasis According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, there are almost 26 million people in the United States alone that have diabetes, which is 8.3% of the total U.S. population. With so many Americans suffering from diabetes, how do we treat all of them? Do all of these people now need insulin shots, or are there other ways to treat, or prevent, diabetes? In order to answer these questions, we must first understand the fundamentals of blood glucose regulation. As you may remember, homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment within an organism, and maintaining a stable internal environment in a human means having to carefully regulate many parameters, including glucose levels in the blood. There are two major ways that signals are sent throughout the body. The first is through nerves of the nervous system. Signals are sent as nerve impulses that travel through nerve cells, called neurons. These impulses are sent to other neurons, or specific target cells at a specific location of the body that the neuron extends to. Most of the signals that the human body uses to regulate body temperature are sent through the nervous system. The second way that signals can be sent throughout the body is through the circulatory system. These signals are transmitted by specific molecules called hormones, which are signaling molecules that travel through the circulatory system. In this lesson, we'll take a look at how the human body maintains blood glucose levels through the use of hormone signaling. Homeostasis of Blood Glucose Levels Glucose is the main source of fuel for the cells in our bodies, but it's too big to simply diffuse into the cells by itself. Instead, it needs to be transported into the cells. Insulin is a hormone produced by the panc Continue reading >>
How Does Diabetes Disrupt Homeostasis?
Diabetes is a chronic illness caused due to the breakdown of the metabolic system of the body. As a result, it is a complicated condition to handle, giving rise to several diseases and adverse health effects. In this article, our subject of study is how can diabetes disturb the normal state of balance or equilibrium in the body of a patient. So, come and join in for the article “How Does Diabetes Disrupt Homeostasis?” What is Homeostasis? Homeostasis is a condition in the body which means the body is in a state of constant equilibrium or balance. Homeo means “similar” and stasis means “stable”. As the name suggests, homeostasis is the ability of the body to remain stable. For example, when you feel hot, your body perspires. The perspiration is a mechanism by which the body is a maintains its stability through different bodily mechanisms. How Does the Body of a Healthy Individual Work? In a healthy individual who is not affected by diabetes, the body keeps the blood glucose within the range through a number of mechanisms. If the body experiences low levels of glucose, the pancreas reacts to the situation by lowering down the total secretion of the hormone insulin. In some other cases, where the level of blood glucose is too low, the pancreas secretes the hormone glucagon in order to enable the liver cells to secrete more of glucose which is then let out in the blood of the body. Apart from that, when blood glucose becomes low, the adrenal in gland also tends to secrete another hormone which is known as epinephrine. The hormone helps in stabilizing the situation in two different ways: It stimulates the liver to increase the production of glucose and Epinephrine prevents the tissues of the body to use more glucose so that enough glucose is remaining for the flo Continue reading >>
Disruption Of Immune Homeostasis In Type 2 Diabetics With Generalized Chronic Periodontitis
The primary objective of this study is to assess the short-term immune response of type-2 diabetics with generalized chronic periodontitis (GCP) to nonsurgical periodontal treatment. The investigators hypothesize that type-2 diabetes exacerbates the disruption of DC (dendritic cells)-mediated immune homeostasis associated with periodontitis. Objectives: The primary objective of this study is to assess the short-term immune response of type-2 diabetics with generalized chronic periodontitis (GCP) to nonsurgical periodontal treatment. Hypothesis: we hypothesize that type-2 diabetes exacerbates the disruption of DC-mediated immune homeostasis associated with periodontitis. Subject population: Four groups comprising 80 subjects will be selected to participate: type 2 diabetics with GCP (n=20), prediabetics with GCP (n=20), normoglycemics with GCP (n=20) and healthy controls (n=20). Study design: discovery study nested within a single-arm, single blinded clinical trial. Experimental periods: Screening/Baseline Visit, Treatment Visit, 24 hours, 30 days and 3 months after treatment. Intervention: Nonsurgical periodontal treatment will be conducted following a full-mouth approach; no antibiotics or chemical plaque control will be provided. Primary outcomes: Cellular measures: Blood PBMCs- counts of myeloid DC (BDCA-1+CD19-), Plasmacytoid DC (cd123+cd303+) NK (CD56+CD16+), Th17, Treg (CD25+, CD39,CD73,CD127, cd152) Molecular measures: (Serum/crevicular fluid/ saliva): Anti-mfa-1 IgG (ELISA), Levels of IDO-1, TGFβ, TNFα, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-2, IL-10, IL-17, IL-23, IFNγ, CXCL12 (SDF1) by Multiplexing Luminex immunoassay [MAGPIX®]), performed in triplicate Expression on mDCs by custom qrt-PCR array (One step-fast cycle Taqman®, life technologiesTM of: angiopoietin-2, follistatin, Continue reading >>
What Hormone Is Responsible For Restoring Homeostasis?
Homeostasis is the ability of an organism to maintain equilibrium; in a human being, homeostasis is balanced by the metabolism, which compensates for disruptions in the body's function. Experiencing changes in temperature, eating certain types of food and undergoing emotional or physical stresses can all disrupt a person's homeostatic state; hormones, either ingested, injected or naturally secreted, restore that homeostasis. Restoring homeostasis The basic restorative hormone in the body is insulin, secreted by the pancreas as part of the balancing act of the endocrine system. Insulin maintains the normal amount of sugar in the bloodstream; an overabundance of sugar will disrupt homeostasis. Anyone with a diabetic condition can describe the dizziness and lack of balance that accompanies a blood-sugar "high" -- this is the body's attempt to restore its equilibrium without sufficient insulin, which is why diabetics inject themselves with the substance. The phenomenon of restoring homeostasis is comparable to a thermostat compensating for temperature changes. Continue reading >>
How Does Diabetes Affect Homeostasis?
Diabetes affects homeostasis by the glucose levels rising, diabetes can also disturb the homeostasis with the metabolism , another system which has disrupted homeostasis from diabetes is the body water regulation system (3). As sugar level rises in the blood, water is pulled out of the cells shrinking them, and the brain does not function as well and foggy water is pulled out of the vitreous of the eyeball and shrinks causing blurry vision the high glucose starts leaking through the kidney glomerulus and spilling into the urine and,pulling water out with it, this is why diabetes cause the symptoms of thirst excessive urination blurry vision and foggy thinking (4). Diabetes affects the endocrine system because it is the result of three main hormonal inconsistencies. One side effect of diabetes is frequent urination and one symptom is that the body can't properly regulate water. It also affects the kidneys to the point where they could shut down. Diabetes affects the nervous system by having too much glucose circulating the body. This can damage many nerves in the body and if the damage is too severe, amputation may be the only solution. Most common oral drugs used for diabetes are: Sulfonyureas, Bigueniedes, Meglitindes. Sulfonyureas Sulfonylureas Simulates the beta cells of the pancreas to release more insulin. sulfonylurea drugs have been used since the 1950s. This drug is generally taken one to two times a day before meals, all Sulfonylureas drugs have similar effects on blood glucose levels, but differ in side effects.Sulfonyureas still effects often taken, or w/ interactions with other drugs. Biguenides Biguanides lowers blood glucose levels primarily by decreasing the amount of glucose produced by the liver by making the muscle tissue more sensitive to insulin so t Continue reading >>
Molecular Approaches To Study Control Of Glucose Homeostasis
Introduction: Diabetes—Problems and Challenges Tight control of energy metabolism is critical for optimal functioning of all tissues in mammals. Among nutrients, glucose is the major source of fuel for energy metabolism, and a minimum level of circulating blood glucose is necessary for the normal functions of organs. A small increase in blood glucose, which is sustained over a prolonged period, or a significant increase in blood glucose even over short periods, can induce cellular toxicity in susceptible tissues including pancreatic β-cells, neurons, renal cells, and retinal cells. Patients with diabetes are therefore at high risk for developing severe complications that result from hyperglycemia including blindness, kidney failure, amputations, and cardiovascular disease. Therefore, knowledge of the factors and pathways that are essential for maintaining blood glucose within the physiological range is crucial for understanding the pathophysiological basis of diabetes and for planning therapeutic strategies to prevent the disease and/or limit its complications. The two most common forms of diabetes are type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Type 1 diabetes (insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus) is also known as juvenile onset diabetes, is generally diagnosed in younger patients, and constitutes approximately 8 to 10% of all cases of diabetes. It is caused by irreversible autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing β-cells in the pancreas and requires lifelong insulin replacement therapy ( Mathis et al. 2001 ; McDevitt 2004 ). Other, rare forms of diabetes have also been characterized, including maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY 1 ) ( Giuffrida and Reis 2005 ), gestational diabetes ( Buchanan and Xiang 2005 ), and latent autoimmune diabetes in adults (LADA 1 ) ( Fourlan Continue reading >>
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Review Homeostasis, Inflammation, And Disease Susceptibility
While modernization has dramatically increased lifespan, it has also witnessed the increasing prevalence of diseases such as obesity, hypertension, and type 2 diabetes. Such chronic, acquired diseases result when normal physiologic control goes awry and may thus be viewed as failures of homeostasis. However, while nearly every process in human physiology relies on homeostatic mechanisms for stability, only some have demonstrated vulnerability to dysregulation. Additionally, chronic inflammation is a common accomplice of the diseases of homeostasis, yet the basis for this connection is not fully understood. Here we review the design of homeostatic systems and discuss universal features of control circuits that operate at the cellular, tissue, and organismal levels. We suggest a framework for classification of homeostatic signals that is based on different classes of homeostatic variables they report on. Finally, we discuss how adaptability of homeostatic systems with adjustable set points creates vulnerability to dysregulation and disease. This framework highlights the fundamental parallels between homeostatic and inflammatory control mechanisms and provides a new perspective on the physiological origin of inflammation. Continue reading >>
Central Regulation Of Energy Homeostasis
Insulin has two important functions that relate to overall metabolic homeostasis. The phylogenetically oldest is the maintenance of sufficient energy stores to allow for development, growth, and reproduction. The newer is as a feedback regulator of plasma glucose. The key role of the central nervous system in both functions is reviewed from a personal perspective, and the development of the concept that both body weight (adiposity) and plasma glucose are critically regulated by the same hormone is described. The recent suggestion that diabetes and obesity are linked by their common reliance on this central nervous system insulin signaling system is reviewed. Recent efforts to understand the hypothalamic mechanisms involved are described, and the common use of insulin receptor substrate 2 and the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase signaling mechanism is emphasized. Potential consequences of defects in the secretion of insulin or the action of insulin in the central nervous system are given, and linkage between obesity and diabetes is illustrated with a potential clinical representative. Insulin and insulin-like molecules have played a key role in energy homeostasis throughout evolution. Elegant studies in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans and the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster have demonstrated insulin-like molecules along with insulin and insulin-like signaling systems that, in C. elegans, are crucial to the regulation of body adiposity and nutrient storage, and in Drosophila play a similar role, plus regulate glucose metabolism. These peptides secreted from neurons are also critical for the regulation of reproduction in these organisms and, in relation to nutrient availability, determine lifespan (1,2). Whereas the role of the brain in mammalian glucose homeostasis was Continue reading >>
